History of the West

1. History of the West Unit 1 Pre-Columbian Indians

2. Beginning Terms • Institution • Anything that is human created in order to pass along information from one generation to the next • Religion, Education, Government, Family, etc. • Culture • Group of people with common institutions that are distinct from other groups of people • Civilization • Group of culture with common institutions that are distinct from other civilizations • Ethnocentrism • View world based upon your own culture

3. Recent Indian Historiography • Linear Progressive • Lewis Henry Morgan • Straight line of progression • Scientific justification for “Civilizing Individuals” • Einstein • Ethnohistory • Combines History and Anthropology • Cultures not to be judged • They are different adaptations to different environments

4. Indian Origins • During the Enlightenment there were various explanations for Indians on North American Continent • Polynesia • Originating from Pacific Ocean islands • Lost tribes of Israel • Tribal explanations • Most had to do with animals bringing up mud to start land • Land Bridge Theory (Beringa) • Traveled during the Ice Age from the Asia continent

5. View of Beringa

6. Migration

7. Earliest Indian Language Families • Caddoan • Da Nene (Athapascan) • Siouan-Catawban • Algonkian (Algonquin) • Kiowa-Tanoan • Uto-Aztecan • Kootenai (Kutinee)

8. Language and Regional Distribution

9. Indian Migration Patterns • Caddoans • Left the ancestors of the Mississippian agriculturalist about 1150 A.D. • Mississippian is a generalized term for Indian groups who participated in agriculture near the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers • Sometime after1300-1400 A.D. they moved up rivers in east Texas and Southeastern Oklahoma • Wichita Indians moved up the Red River, and others into Southern Kansas • Pawnees moved up Republican River into Kansas and Nebraska • Arikaras moved up the Missouri River near Canadian Border

10. Indian Migration Patterns (Con’t) • Siouan • Controversy and speculation on this group • Probably moved in multiple waves • Origins in the Ohio River Valley • Manda, Hidatsa, and Dakota/Lakota Indians • Moved into the north plains between 1350-1550 A.D. • Minnesota, Easter Dakotas and Southern Canada • Ponca, Iowa, Omaha, Missouri, Kansa, Osage • Moved into the middle Mississippi and Missouri valley around the 1600’s A.D

11. -Hidatsa-Crow Split/Crow became Plains Indians

12. Indian Migration Patterns (Con’t) • Athapascan • From the Mackenzie Basin in Canada • Became the Navajos and Apaches • Moved down the Western slopes of the Rockies • Ended up in the four-corners region around 1400-1500’s A.D. • Algonkians • Came from eastern woodlands • Became groups like the Blackfeet • Agriculturalist who became Plains Indians • Got pushed west from American and European expansion

13. Indian Migration Patterns (Con’t) • Uto-Aztecans • 3 subdivisions migrated onto the Plains • Utes – Furthest south in the Great Basin • Commanches – In the middle • Shoshones – Furthest north

14. Plains Indians migration/pushed and attracted

15. Indian Nation Distribution

16. Geographical Map

17. Fundamentals of Social and Political Structure • Lineage • Organized along bloodlines • Almost exclusively among village agriculturalists • Those who lived near the Mississippi and Missouri River Valleys • Matrilineal • Organized according to female side • Mother, her sisters, and her brothers • Easier divorce and better status for women • Father’s role less and often fulfilled by uncles • Husband lives within wive’s family

18. Fundamentals of Social and Political Structure (Con’t) • Lineage (Con’t) • Patralineal • Organized according to male bloodlines • Father, his brothers, and his sisters • Male role more pronounced, especially for paternal father • Usually female live within husband’s family

19. Fundamentals of Social and Political Structure (Con’t) • Clan • Collection of lineages • Universal among agriculturalists • Split based upon identification of animals • Interlocking functions in rituals and ceremonies • Usually must marry from different clans • Moiety • Collection of bands, lineages, or clans into sides • Usually two • Marriage must be outside of moiety

20. Fundamentals of Social and Political Structure (Con’t) • Tribe • Largest political unit recognized by Indians themselves • Confederate style government • Little central authority mandated • Lots of variety among the various Indian groups

21. Fundamentals of Social and Political Structure (Con’t) • Internal structure and central authority • Bands among composite (Nomadic) groups • Most of the year scattered around their domain • Due to pursuit of buffalo and other game • Membership flexible/ could change • Venturing into other’s territory not uncommon • Fights ensued and land gained or lost • Organization followed habits of buffalo • All bands gather during rutting time

22. Central Government Among Composite Tribes • Headman (Chief) • May be hereditary but not required • For leadership may turn to someone else • Size of following depended on different traits • Hunting/Fighting skills, generosity, powers of persuasion, oratorical skills in consensus decision, and decision making • Decisions through band consensus • Not overly effective

23. Central Government Among Composite Tribes (Con’t) • Sodalities (Exclusive to Composite Groups) • Societies or fraternal groups • Membership outside of kinship or descendent lines • Bond based upon common interests or functions • Could be ceremonial, religious, craft, social, dance, or soldiering • Soldiering sodalities often ranked with membership earned • Interlocking ceremonial functions provided group cohesiveness • Generally in charge of enforcing group rules and norms

24. Central Government Among Composite Tribes (Con’t) • Central Council • Group of headmen • Met when all bands assemble • When decision is made, the headmen return to their band/moiety/clan to persuade them to follow • Little real power • Mediate and led in consensus decision making camp circle • Traditional placement of bands when assembled together

25. Central Government Among Composite Tribes (Con’t) • Ranking and stratification • Communal unity and sharing • Still some more successful and thus have a sense of rank • How Village Agriculturalist differed • Larger populations • Government more centralized and hereditary • Somewhat more ranking and stratification

26. The Supernatural • Thought varied among the different tribes, though there were some similarities • Animism • Connection to the animal world • Life and Religion are one • Myths and story-telling • Used to teach history and religion • Dreams play a significant role • Give guidance from the gods/animals

27. Supernatural (Con’t) • Types of Supernatural beings • Primary “god” • Effective • Closest to primary being • Originating/cultural heroes • Gave group fire or something else of significance • Sometimes the primary god • Instructive • Trickster/often in humor • Stories with a lesson or message

28. Supernatural (Con’t) • Sacred Peace Pipe • 2 Parts • Ceremonial • Used before most major events • Raiding • Buffalo hunts • Dances • Negotiations • Meetings

29. Another example

30. Supernatural (Con’t) • Vision Quest • Rite of passage for males • Important to go about it in the proper steps • Strive for vision, contents of a sacred bundle and good medicine • Sacred Bundle • Includes various medicines that help in guidance and activities • Generally includes eagle feathers, unique rocks, arrows, etc. • Vision gives guidance as to how strong they will likely become

31. Supernatural (Con’t) • Sun Dance • Performed for various reasons • Revenge, rite of passage for males • Possibly connected to agricultural past • Three types • Tethered to a pole • Drag a bison skull • Hung from top of an earth lodge • Animal Dances • Generally done before the hunting season in order to bring a plentiful harvest • Done in a rotation with other dances during the whole tribal meeting in the Summer • Shaman the head of religious activities among the Indian tribes • Somewhat of a sodality in its’ own right

32. Image of tethering in the sun

33. Mandan Sundance

34. Material Culture • Weapons of the hunt • Lance or spear • Bow and arrow • Simple • Most popular bows made from Bois D’ Arc (Osage Orange) trees • Compound • Reinforced with sinews of buffalo • Horns • Usually elk or big horn sheep • Later guns • Usually a step or two below Europeans and Americans

35. Bois D’Arc Tree

36. Material Culture (Con’t) • Techniques in hunting large numbers of bison • Jump • Pound • Push them as a herd into a corner or canyon • Surround • Usually surrounding them with fire • Force them through one area and kill them as they came through • Also dressed up as coyotes to get up close and possibly kill them

37. Food • Types of Meat • Deer • Antelope • Bison • Fish • Weir • Hooks made of fish bones • Smaller game • Rabbits, bird, etc.

38. Food (Con’t) • Vegetables • Roots and Berries • Composite tribes generally traded with village agriculturalist other vegetables • Village agriculturalist would grow crops in river valleys • Return during harvesting time

39. Housing • Tipi • Great ventilation for winter and summer • Made of buffalo skins

40. Housing (Con’t) • Earth Lodge • Used by eastern village agriculturalist • Made with poles of wood structure covered with grass and mud • Constructed collectively in ceremonial fashion

41. Mandan Earth Lodge

42. Grass Lodge/Wichita & similar groups

43. Miscellaneous • Comb • Made from cactus or porcupine quills • Horses • Once introduced, it becomes a significant sign of class status • Baskets/Pottery • Bullboats • Used to cross over rivers

44. Plains Indians Bullboat

45. Apache Baskets

46. Warfare • Before the horse • Line up and threaten one another • Group that seemed overwhelmed usually ran away • Tribes were small in number so any death significant to tribal structures • Therefore low loss and not a “game” • Medicine • Influenced by the supernatural • Helps protect fighters

47. Warfare (Con’t) • Coup • Ranking of war success • More daring, the more coup received • Varied by groups • Killing not necessarily the highest • Ex. Touching an enemy tribe without killing them • How different than European warfare • No standing armies or prolonged campaigns • More guerilla warfare

48. Trails Westward

49. Continental Exchanges • The Americas to Europe • Tobacco to western Europe • Furs • War tactics in some cases • Tomatoes • Europe to Americas • Peaches • Diseases • Bees • Blue grass