Chapters 9 and 10

1. Chapters 9 and 10 Chris Smart Creighton Bradley Leandra Londo csmart@mtu.edu cfbradle@mtu.edu lllondo@mtu.edu

2. Introduction • 9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument • 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons and Evidence • 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence • 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence • 9.5 Reliable Evidence • 10.1 Questioning Your Argument • 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument • 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge • 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

3. Using Reason to Plan Your Argument • Readers use reasons to believe and understand • Collect evidence and use reasons to organize • Use a storyboard • Try different arrangements • Change as you information changes

4. Distinction Between Reasons and Evidence • Reasons are why • Evidence is accepted as fact • Start with reasons but base them on facts • Readers decide whether it is fact or a reason • Imagine “how” and “why”

5. Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence • Evidence is usually reported. • Evidence is rounded or shaped. • Unlikely for a researcher to rely on only 1 source • Most evidence we get is 3rd hand • Readers want proof • Methods • sources

6. Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence • Numerous ways to report evidence • Direct Quotes • Photographs, video, other media • Charts or tables • Paraphrasing • Different researchers require different techniques • Improper use of reporting leads to suspicion and loss of credibility

7. Reliable evidence • Criteria for reliable evidence • Precision • Avoid vague words like “great deal” or small amount. • Use discretion in differing fields • Representative • More than one bit of info • Find best evidence • Accuracy • Small mistakes kill credibility • Acknowledge if evidence is of unknown accuracy • From an authoritative source • Make the evidence easy to interpret

8. Chapter 10: Questioning your argument • Question the problem as your reader would • Why have you defined it that way? • Is there even a problem? • What kind of problem is it? • Question the solution as well • What kind of solution is it? • Is the claim too strong? • Why is your solution the best? • The best time to fix a problem is when you find it

9. Common objections to evidence • Different type of evidence wanted • Not accurate • Not precise • Outdated • Not representative • Not authoritative • Not enough evidence

10. Finding Alternatives to your argument • Alternatives in your sources • Note where source takes a different approach • Especially outright disagreements • Acknowledge alternative positions of the source • Don’t ignore evidence because you deem it irrelevant – explain why. • If you pay attention to problems noted in sources, you will understand the problem better.

11. Three Predictable Answers • “But there are causes in addition to the one you claim.” • If using cause-effect to explain your problem, remember no cause has a single effect and vice-versa • “But what about these counter examples?” • Think of them first • Acknowledge the more plausible ones • Explain why they aren’t valid for your argument

12. Three Predictable Answers, cont’d • “I don’t define X as you do. To me, X means… • Define it in a way that supports your solution • Argue your definition to support it • If using a technical definition over a common one, explain why. Also do this if using a common definition over a technical one.

13. Deciding What to Acknowledge • Selecting Alternatives to respond to: • Consider these priorities • Plausible charges of apparent weakness you can rebut • Alternative lines of argument that have been important in your field • Alternative conclusions readers want to be true • Alternative evidence that readers know • Important counterexamples you have to explain away

14. Deciding What to Acknowledge, cont’d • Selecting alternatives to respond to: • Look for alternatives that allow you to repeat part of your argument • Acknowledge alternatives that may particularly appeal to readers, but only if you can do so without sounding too dismissive.

15. Acknowledging Questions you can’t Answer • If finding questions you cannot answer, try redefining your problem, or rebuilding your argument to avoid it. • Openly acknowledge the problem and respond that: • The rest of your argument more than balances the flaw • While the flaw is serious, further research would show a way around it • While the flaw makes it impossible to accept your claim fully, your argument offers important insight into the question and suggests what a better answer would be.

16. Responses as Subordinate Arguments • You have to respond to your imagined readers most thoughtful alternatives and objectives with an argument • Even most minimal responses give reason for accepting, limiting or rejecting what you’ve acknowledged • More substantial responses require a full argument • Acknowledging the readers alternatives and objections brings you and your argument more credibility.

17. Summary • 9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument • 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons and Evidence • 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence • 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence • 9.5 Reliable Evidence • 10.1 Questioning Your Argument • 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument • 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge • 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

18. Bibliography Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. 138-60. Print.

19. Questions?