Japan: Endings and Beginnings: From Tokugawa to the Meiji ...

1. Japan: Endings and Beginnings: From Tokugawa to the Meiji Restoration 1787-1873

2. Main Entry: d�grin�go�lade �� Pronunciation: d-gran()-g-l�dFunction: nounEtymology: French, from d�gringoler to tumble down, from Middle French desgringueler, from des- de- + gringueler to tumble, from Middle Dutch crinkelen to make curl, from crinc, cring ring, circleDate: 1873: a rapid decline or deterioration (as in strength, position, or condition) : Main Entry: d�grin�go�lade �� Pronunciation: d-gran()-g-l�dFunction: nounEtymology: French, from d�gringoler to tumble down, from Middle French desgringueler, from des- de- + gringueler to tumble, from Middle Dutch crinkelen to make curl, from crinc, cring ring, circleDate: 1873: a rapid decline or deterioration (as in strength, position, or condition) :

3. The Bakufu (1787-1841) Matsudaira Sadanobu & the Kansei Reforms Campaign against corruption Mandate lower prices; restrictions on merchant guilds; cancel loans Zhu Xi Neo-Confucianism made orthodox Brought only temporary relief Matsudaira Sadanobu born Jan. 25, 1759, Edo [now Tokyo], Japandied , June 14, 1829, EdoJapanese minister who instituted the Kansei reforms (q.v.), a series of conservative fiscal and social measures intended to reinvigorate Japan by recovering the greatness that had marked the Tokugawa shogunate from its inception in 1603. Although traditional historians have paid tribute to them, Matsudaira's reforms are now generally considered to have been a vain resuscitation of an outdated system and to have hindered any adjustment of the process of government to changes already taking place in society. Matsudaira was a member of the reigning Tokugawa family and had early been considered for adoption as heir to the shogun, or hereditary military dictator of Japan. Instead he was made the daimyo, or lord, of an important fief not under the shogun's direct rule. There his vigorous measures reordered finances and administration. When the shogun Tokugawa Ieharu died in 1786, Matsudaira's influence secured the nomination of Tokugawa Ienari (reigned 1787�1837) as successor. Under the new administration, Matsudaira, a firm believer in the anticommerce, ruler-oriented philosophy of the 12th-century Chinese thinker Chu Hsi, accomplished the dismissal of the chief minister, Tanuma Okitsugu, who had headed a notoriously corrupt administration but had encouraged the development of trade and industry. Having then succeeded Tanuma as chief minister, Matsudaira tried to proscribe unorthodox thought. He dismissed numerous corrupt officials and instituted qualifying examinations for new appointees. He sought to foster the traditional agricultural economy by curtailing foreign trade and severely restricting the growth of the merchant class, while limiting fiscal expenditure through a vigorous program of economy. His policies gave some aid to the government in its financial difficulties, and his measures to alleviate famine temporarily averted serious peasant unrest, but such solutions proved to be only temporary. After a minor policy dispute with the shogun had caused his retirement in 1793, Matsudaira devoted himself to Confucian studies and writing. He was considered�and styled himself�a model Confucian ruler.  Kansei reforms series of conservative measures promoted (largely during the Kansei era [1789�1801]) by the Japanese statesman Matsudaira Sadanobu between 1787 and 1793 to restore the sinking financial and moral condition of the Tokugawa government. Commerce, especially with the West, was curtailed, while agriculture was encouraged. Curbs were even placed on the migration of farmers to the cities, and debts to merchants incurred by retainers of the Tokugawa shogun, or hereditary military dictator of Japan, were either reduced or cancelled. Sadanobu also initiated a general policy of frugality and placed strict limitations on the expenditures of all classes. Chu Hsi Confucianism was promoted as the orthodox school of philosophy, and publications came under rigorous censorship. Although the measures resulted in less oppressive famine conditions and temporarily bolstered governmental finances, the reforms were gradually undone after Sadanobu's dismissal. Matsudaira Sadanobu born Jan. 25, 1759, Edo [now Tokyo], Japandied , June 14, 1829, Edo

4. Economy and Society Several domains pursue market-oriented polices Low-ranking samurai impoverished Stipends paid in rice; fluctuating market Frequent reduction in stipend Harbored resentment against merchants, govt corruption Peasants flee rural poverty Millennial movements; Rural and urban uprisings Several domains pursued market oriented policies in contrast to the agrarian policies of the center. Several domains pursued market oriented policies in contrast to the agrarian policies of the center.

5. Reforms Mizuno Tadakuni (1793-1851) International Context: Opium War (1839-42) Tempo Reforms: Recoinage, forced loans, dismissal of officials, sumptuary laws Agrarian policies and loan cancellations Local reform on domain level Satsuma & Choshu Anti-Tokugawa; higher than average samurai to land ratio Family ties to court in Kyoto Mizuno Tadakuni born July 19, 1794, Edo [now Tokyo], Japandied , March 12, 1851, Edochief adviser to Tokugawa Ieyoshi (reigned 1837�53), 12th Tokugawa shogun, or military dictator, of Japan. Mizuno was responsible for the Tempo reforms, the Tokugawa shogunate's final effort to halt the growing social and economic decline that was undermining its rule. The son of a prominent feudal lord, Mizuno in 1828 was appointed tutor to the Tokugawa heir apparent, Ieyoshi. Although Mizuno was elevated to the position of chief shogunal adviser in 1834, he exercised little power until Tokugawa Ienari (reigned 1787�1837), the 11th shogun, finally died three years later and Ieyoshi succeeded him. Thereafter, until his dismissal from office in 1843, Mizuno virtually controlled the government. Mizuno came to power at a time when popular unrest was sweeping the country after almost a decade of serious famines. His rise also coincided with China's defeat by Great Britain in the trading dispute known as the Opium War (1839�42); and Mizuno recognized that, if Japan did not solve its internal problems, it would be helpless in the face of the inevitable Western encroachment. To this end, he made a vain effort to reinstate the simple martial virtues of the early Tokugawa period. He insisted on personal and governmental frugality, introducing sumptuary laws that went to unenforceable extremes. In an attempt to hamper the growing trade economy, which he considered frivolous, Mizuno canceled all debts owed by noblemen to members of the middle class, abolished many of the merchant guilds licensed by his predecessors, and ordered peasants who had migrated to the cities to return to the countryside. A program to appropriate vassals' domains near Edo and Osaka aroused much opposition, and Mizuno's measures became so unpopular that the shogun had to dismiss him. Tempo reforms (1841�43), unsuccessful attempt by the Tokugawa shogunate (1603�1868) to restore the feudal agricultural society that prevailed in Japan at the beginning of its rule. Named after the Tempo era (1830�44) in which they occurred, the reforms demonstrated the ineffectiveness of traditional means in dealing with Japan's problems of growing urban crime and poverty, over-rigid administration, and agrarian discontent. Initiated by Mizuno Tadakuni, chief adviser to the shogun, the Tempo reforms emphasized frugality in governmental and personal affairs; many officials were eliminated from the administration, and lewd works of art and literature were censored. Debts incurred by the shogun's followers to merchants were cancelled, further migration to the cities was restricted, merchant guilds were discouraged, and price controls were encouraged. Attempts to consolidate the shogun's land around Edo (modern Tokyo) and Osaka by forcing holders of tracts there to exchange them for less arable land aroused the opposition of the landowning classes and had to be dropped. The reforms that were completed proved ineffective, demonstrating that the economy had become too complex to be regulated by fiat. Mizuno Tadakuni born July 19, 1794, Edo [now Tokyo], Japandied , March 12, 1851, Edo

6. Satsuma & Choshu Reform Budget surplus was built up Choshu: Monopolies abolished With the exception of shipping and warehouse Taxed merchants Satsuma: Monopolies allowed Sugar monopoly on Ryukyu Raised to power young samurai of middle or lower rank; innovative and energetic Crucial role in eventual overthrow of the Tokugawa

7. Intellectual Currents Heterodoxy undermines intellectual foundations of Tokugawa Rule Mito School & Kokugaku Anti-Foreignism of Aizawa Seishisai: combined Confucian values and bushido with Shinto to create discuss Japan as a unique polity (Kokutai) Sakuma Shozan �Eastern Ethics and Western Science� Emphasis on the centrality of the emperor, followers of Dutch Learning, and advocates of social restructuring ate away at the intellectual foundations of Tokugawa rule (p. 444). The weakening of the bakuhan system > New learning and thought > Heterodox Confucian schools Already in the second half of the 17th century the scholars of the kogaku (�study of antiquity�) school criticized Chu Hsi studies and advocated a return to the original ideals of Confucianism. Two of the most important thinkers articulating this view were Ito Jinsai and Ogyu Sorai. Sorai, acknowledged to be the seminal thinker of Edo times, was especially concerned with the contradictions between social theory and reality. Critical of the rise of merchants and farmers at the expense of the samurai, he tried to find a way to revive the deteriorating conditions of warriors. In his work Seidan, for example, Sorai insisted that the main reason for the financial distress of the warrior class in both the bakufu and the domains was that warriors had moved to the cities, where they were at the mercy of a monetary economy. If they would return to the villages, they could be self-sufficient once again, and other orders of society�especially the peasants�would respect them. The proper relations between the classes could thus be restored. Kogaku critics of orthodoxy were hardly alone. Various other schools of Confucianism arose, such as setchugaku (�eclectic school�) and koshogaku (�positivistic school�). Conflict between the various schools became fierce, and the authority of Chu Hsi studies grew weak, which explains Sadanobu's prohibition of heterodox studies during the Kansei reforms. The bakufu attempted to reinvigorate Chu Hsi orthodoxy by prohibiting all other schools of Confucianism in the college of the bakufu, but the attempt was destined to failure. Confucianism, both Chu Hsi orthodoxy and other types, now spread widely throughout the provinces, especially with the establishment of domain schools (hanko) for the education of the domain samurai. Beginning in the 18th century, but continuing until the end of the Edo period, domains one after another opened such schools to train their warrior-administrators in both civil and military skills. Thus, learning and culture arose in the domains, accompanied by a growth of scholarship with local colouring. Among such schools, the Kaitoku-do in Osaka became famous as the �townspeople's university.� This school was founded cooperatively by Confucian scholars and wealthy merchants in 1724, and samurai and merchants sat together to hear lectures. Perhaps the best-known and most unique thinker to come out of the school was Yamagata Banto. To cite this page: MLA style:" Japan ." Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop�dia Britannica Premium Service.�20�Mar.�2006�<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23175>. Kokugaku (Japanese: �National Learning�), movement in late 17th- and 18th-century Japan that emphasized Japanese classical studies. The movement received impetus from the Neo-Confucianists, who stressed the importance of Chinese Classical literature. The Mito school of scholars, for example, initiated a monumental work, the Dai-nihon-shi (�History of Great Japan�), based on the Chinese model of histories. Soon, though, the Kokugaku movement attempted a purge of all foreign influences, including Buddhism and Confucianism. The �national learning� movement culminated in the Fukko (Restoration) school of Shinto under the leadership of such men as Kamo Mabuchi, Motoori Norinaga, and Hirata Atsutane. The Shinto revival, Kokugaku movement, and royalist sentiments of the Mito school all combined in the Meiji period (1868�1912) in the restoration of imperial rule and the establishment of Shinto as a state cult.  To cite this page: MLA style:" Kokugaku ." Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop�dia Britannica Premium Service.�20�Mar.�2006�<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045919 Sakuma Zozan born March 10, 1811, Matsushiro [now in Nagano city], Japandied Aug. 2, 1864, Kyotoalso called �Sakuma Shozan�, original name �Sakuma Kunitada� early and influential proponent of Westernization in Japan whose slogan Toyo no dotoku, seiyo no geijutsu (�Eastern ethics, Western techniques�) became the basis of the Japanese modernization effort in the late 19th century. Sakuma's ideas, especially as they became known through his colourful disciple Yoshida Shoin, provided one of the main inspirations for the Meiji Restoration, the movement that in 1868 returned executive authority to the Japanese emperor and swept away the remnants of feudalism in the country. After receiving a traditional Confucian education, Sakuma became one of the most trusted councillors of Sanada Yukitsura, a member of the council of advisers to the shogun, the hereditary military dictator of Japan. His espousal of Japan's adoption of Western technology, however, was at odds with the shogunate's xenophobic attitudes, and he and Sanada were forced to resign. Sakuma devoted himself to Western studies, including the language of the Dutch, then the only Westerners with whom Japan had contact. Teaching himself to cast weapons and make glass, he worked to improve the armed strength and the agriculture of his small native fief of Matsushiro. His success attracted many disciples, including some who later held important posts in the new government. In 1854 Sakuma, in an effort to acquire more knowledge of the West, encouraged his disciple Yoshida Shoin to stow away on one of the ships of U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry, who was trying to induce Japan to open itself to trade and other relations with the West. When Yoshida was caught, both he and Sakuma were imprisoned but were spared the death penalty. Within a year Sakuma was released into the custody of his clan. After the Harris treaty was signed (1858), which established diplomatic and commercial relations between the United States and Japan, he became one of the most forceful advocates of the new policy of �opening the country.� Meanwhile, those who believed the treaty betrayed Japanese tradition started a movement to overthrow the shogun and restore power to the emperor. Sakuma, who felt such a division in the country could be disastrous, was on a mission to help smooth relations between shogun and emperor when he was assassinated by a group of nationalistic samurai. To cite this page: MLA style:" Sakuma Zozan ." Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop�dia Britannica Premium Service.�20�Mar.�2006�<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9065009>.Emphasis on the centrality of the emperor, followers of Dutch Learning, and advocates of social restructuring ate away at the intellectual foundations of Tokugawa rule (p. 444). The weakening of the bakuhan system > New learning and thought > Heterodox Confucian schools Already in the second half of the 17th century the scholars of the kogaku (�study of antiquity�) school criticized Chu Hsi studies and advocated a return to the original ideals of Confucianism. Two of the most important thinkers articulating this view were Ito Jinsai and Ogyu Sorai. Sorai, acknowledged to be the seminal thinker of Edo times, was especially concerned with the contradictions between social theory and reality. Critical of the rise of merchants and farmers at the expense of the samurai, he tried to find a way to revive the deteriorating conditions of warriors. In his work Seidan, for example, Sorai insisted that the main reason for the financial distress of the warrior class in both the bakufu and the domains was that warriors had moved to the cities, where they were at the mercy of a monetary economy. If they would return to the villages, they could be self-sufficient once again, and other orders of society�especially the peasants�would respect them. The proper relations between the classes could thus be restored. Kogaku critics of orthodoxy were hardly alone. Various other schools of Confucianism arose, such as setchugaku (�eclectic school�) and koshogaku (�positivistic school�). Conflict between the various schools became fierce, and the authority of Chu Hsi studies grew weak, which explains Sadanobu's prohibition of heterodox studies during the Kansei reforms. The bakufu attempted to reinvigorate Chu Hsi orthodoxy by prohibiting all other schools of Confucianism in the college of the bakufu, but the attempt was destined to failure. Confucianism, both Chu Hsi orthodoxy and other types, now spread widely throughout the provinces, especially with the establishment of domain schools (hanko) for the education of the domain samurai. Beginning in the 18th century, but continuing until the end of the Edo period, domains one after another opened such schools to train their warrior-administrators in both civil and military skills. Thus, learning and culture arose in the domains, accompanied by a growth of scholarship with local colouring. Among such schools, the Kaitoku-do in Osaka became famous as the �townspeople's university.� This school was founded cooperatively by Confucian scholars and wealthy merchants in 1724, and samurai and merchants sat together to hear lectures. Perhaps the best-known and most unique thinker to come out of the school was Yamagata Banto. To cite this page: MLA style:" Japan ." Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop�dia Britannica Premium Service.�20�Mar.�2006�<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23175>. Kokugaku (Japanese: �National Learning�), movement in late 17th- and 18th-century Japan that emphasized Japanese classical studies. The movement received impetus from the Neo-Confucianists, who stressed the importance of Chinese Classical literature. The Mito school of scholars, for example, initiated a monumental work, the Dai-nihon-shi (�History of Great Japan�), based on the Chinese model of histories. Soon, though, the Kokugaku movement attempted a purge of all foreign influences, including Buddhism and Confucianism. The �national learning� movement culminated in the Fukko (Restoration) school of Shinto under the leadership of such men as Kamo Mabuchi, Motoori Norinaga, and Hirata Atsutane. The Shinto revival, Kokugaku movement, and royalist sentiments of the Mito school all combined in the Meiji period (1868�1912) in the restoration of imperial rule and the establishment of Shinto as a state cult. To cite this page: MLA style:" Kokugaku ." Encyclop�dia Britannica. 2006. Encyclop�dia Britannica Premium Service.�20�Mar.�2006�<http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045919 Sakuma Zozan born March 10, 1811, Matsushiro [now in Nagano city], Japandied Aug. 2, 1864, Kyoto

8. The Opening of Japan Commodore Matthew C. Perry Gunboat diplomacy Bakufu solicited opinions of daimyo Undermined its exclusive right to determine foreign policy Townsend Harris and Unequal Treaty

9. Domestic Politics Concessions to western powers provided more ammunition for enemies of Bakufu Demand for vigorous defense policy Ii Naosuke revitalizes bakufu; assasinated by sonno joi advocates of Mito

10. Sonno Joi Mito School � emperor centered historiography and political thought Yoshida Shoin Failure to expel the barbarians reflected incompetence, dereliction of duty, and lack of reverence for the throne Concluded bakufu must be overthrown Executed for assassination plot

11. Mixed Responses to West Reactions varied widely Hatred Learn from West to defeat the West Kaikoku joi: �open the country to drive out the barbarians� Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) Conditions in the West

12. Last Years of the Shogunate Social Chaos ee ja nai ka Assassinations Shogun forced to accept June 25, 1863 as deadline to expel foreigners Choshu fires on foreign ships; returned fire, eventually destroy fortifications on Choshu

13. Response to Defeat Modernized military units Peasant militia organized; mixed units staffed by samurai and commoner Began acquiring Western Ships Enrich the country (and/to?) strengthen the army Bakufu/Choshu Wars November 1866 Shogun resigns in favor of a council of daimyo (oligarchy) under the emperor January 1868 restoration proclaimed; shogunate destroyed

14. II. The Meiji Restoration

15. Formation of a New Government Meiji Emperor (r. 1867-1912) Reign but still not to rule Oligarchs Shared similar qualities Okubo Toshimich (1830-1878) Kido Koin (1833-1877) Saigo Takamori (1827-1877) Emperor moved to Edo (renamed Tokyo)

16. The Charter Oath Proclaimed in the name of the emperor (April 1868) End of seclusion; acceptance of international law; openness foreign ideas Democratic and international Shows gulf between Japanese and Chinese

17. Abolition of Han Choshu and Satsuma voluntarily returned lands to emperor; others followed example 1871 all other han abolished; reorganized into prefectures Daimyo allowed to retain a 10th of domain revenue; government assumed debt Daimyo elevated to peerage

18. Modern Military Initially dependant on regional forces Needed new military freed from local ties Rejected Saigo�s views of a Samurai Army (The Last Samurai) New army to be built on commoner conscription

19. Samurai Undermined status of Samurai Anyone could be a warrior Commoners allowed to acquire surnames Wearing of swords made optional; then proscribed altogethor Samurai pensioned off; eventually forced to accept bonds

20. Fiscal Reform Tax collected by government in money according to land value Paid by the owner; cultivators or wealthy villager who paid the tax Tenancy perpetuated; increased from 25% to 40%

21. Disaffection and Opposition Some peasant and merchant houses hurt by restoration Samurai provided leadership; but some unable to make transition Split between conservatives and modernizers

22. Crisis of 1873 Saigo advocates war with Korea Open Korea to modern relations with Japan Provide employment for samurai Decision made in absence of Oligarchs who were touring the West Decision to abandon Korean expedition splits government Advocates of War resigned; led discontented Samurai (Last Samurai) Left government to men committed to modernization

23. Meaning of the Restoration Increased openness to West Adopt Western dress and food Gregorian calendar adopted Western architecture Revolution From Above Destroyed old system Created centralized system Eliminated old class lines