Part I. The Ethics of Duty

1. Part I.The Ethics of Duty More than any other philosopher, Kant emphasized the way in which the moral life was centered on duty.

2. Duty as following orders • The Adolph Eichmann model • Duty is external • Duty is imposed by others • Duty as freely imposing obligation on one’s own self • The Kantian model • Duty is internal • We impose duty on ourselves • The second conception of duty is much more morally advanced than the first. Two Conceptions of Duty

3. “I had known the Categorical Imperative, but it was in a nutshell, in a summarized form. I suppose it could be summarized as, ‘Be loyal to the laws, be a disciplined person, live an orderly life, do not come into conflict with laws’—that more or less was the whole essence of that law for the use of the little man.” Adolph Eichmann Duty and Following Orders

4. The Grocer Example • The grocer with regular customers might be honest just out of self-interest. • Duty and Utility: The Suicide Example Duty and Self-Interest

5. Kant was mistrustful of inclinations (Neigungen) as motivations • This was part of his view of the physical world as causally determined • Saw feelings as • Unreliable • Passive • Phenomenal Duty and Inclination

6. Moral Minimalism • Requirements are not heartfelt • Moral Alienation • Alienated from feelings • Duty and “Just Following Orders” • This is not Kant’s genuine position Criticisms of the Ethics of Duty

7. Central insight: What is fair for one is fair for all Part II.Universalizability and the Categorical Imperative

8. Most of us live by rules much of the time. Some of these are what Kant called Categorical Imperatives—unconditional commands that are binding on everyone at all times. Living by Rules

9. Hypothetical Imperative: • “If you want to learn French, take a French class.” • Structure: if…then… • Categorical Imperative • “Always tell the truth” • Unconditional, applicable at all times Types of Imperatives

10. Maxims, according to Kant, are subjective rules that guide action. • Relevant Act Description • Sufficient Generality • All actions have maxims, such as, • Never lie to your friends. • Never act in a way that would make your parents ashamed of you. • Always watch out for number one. • It’s ok to cheat if you need to. Maxims

11. “Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.” --Immanuel Kant Categorical Imperatives:Universality

12. “Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in other people, as an end in itself and never as a mere means.” --Immanuel Kant Categorical Imperatives: Respect

13. Is it possible to universalize a maxim that permits lying? • What is the maxim? • It’s ok to cheat when you want/need to? • Can this consistently be willed as a universal law? • No, it undermines itself, destroying the rational expectation of trust upon which it depends. Lying

14. Cheating involves not playing by the rules. Is it possible for the cheater to will his/her maxim as a universal law? No, because then others (including the teacher) could refuse to follow the rules as well, failing the cheater even with a good grade. Academic Cheating

15. Are exceptions possible for Kant? • Yes, as long as they can be consistently universalized • Examples • The speeding car • We can universalize an exception for something like ambulance drivers • The Gestapo example • Can we universalize a maxim to deceive in order to save innocent lives? Exceptions

16. In an essay written near the end of his life, Kant maintained that you are never justified in telling a lie. • Beliefs about causality—if you do the right thing, you are not responsible for bad outcomes. Kant and the Alleged Right to Tell a Lie

17. Kant saw that morality must be fair and evenhanded. The Kantian path offers a certain kind of moral safety in an uncertain world. Conclusion