Lab # 4

1. Lab # 4 Occupational ExposureProtection of the Worker

2. Protection of the worker 2

3. The use of radiations and radiolabeled products for any purpose is governed by regulatory agencies in different countries all over the world. • The use of radiopharmaceuticals in humans was almost unregulated until the late 1950s. • Until 1963, all reactor-derived radiopharmaceuticals were under the control of the Atomic Energy Commission • (AEC, now the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, (NRC)) only for their radiation hazards.

4. The therapeutic or diagnostic efficacy and the pharmaceutical quality of radiopharmaceuticals were not regulated by the AEC or by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) until the early 1960s. • In 1963 the FDA introduced rules stating that the clinical efficacy of all radiopharmaceuticals.

5. Radiation Protection • Because radiation can cause damage in living systems, international and national organizations have been established to set guidelines for the safe handling of radioactive materials. • The International Committee on Radio logical Protection (ICRP) • The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) • They set guidelines for all radiation workers to follow in handling radiations

6. Occupational Exposure Protection of the Worker

7. RESPONSIBILITIES Licensees shall ensure for all workers that: Occupational exposure be limited Suitable and adequate facilities, equipment and services for protection be provided Appropriate protective devices and monitoring equipment be provided and properly used Appropriate training be provided as well as periodic retraining and updating 7

8. Caution Signs and Labels • The NRC requires that specific signs, symbols, and labels be used to warn people of possible danger from the presence of radiations • These signs use purple, and black colors on a yellow background • Some typical signs are shown in the figures 8

9. Caution: Radiation Area: This sign must be posted in radiation areas. • Caution: High Radiation Area or Danger: High Radiation Area: This sign must be posted in high radiation areas. • Caution: Radioactive Material or Danger: Radioactive Material:This sign is posted in areas or rooms in which 10 times the quantity or more of any licensed material specified in Appendix C of 10CFR20 are used or stored. • All containers with quantities of licensed materials exceeding those specified in Appendix C of 10CFR20 should be labeled with this sign.

10. Sources of exposure Occupational Exposure Protection of the Worker

11. EXPOSURES IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE Internal Ingested and/or inhaled radionuclides External Vials, syringes, patients. 11

12. Exposure of the workerExternal Exposure • Unpacking radioactive material • Activity measurements • Storage of sources • Internal transports of sources • Preparation of radiopharmaceuticals • Administration • Examination of the patient • Care of the radioactive patient • Handling of radioactive waste • Accidents 12

13. Contamination of the worker • spills • improper administration • experimental work with animals • emergency surgery of a therapy patient 13

14. Dose to worker 2,5 2 1,5 Dose (uSv) 1 0,5 0 Dispensing Injection Examination Measurements of this kind can show different results in different hospitals 14

15. Radiation Protection Measures Depend on: Activities used Type of radionuclide and its chemical properties Time Distance Shielding Type of procedure 15

16. Time Dose is proportional to the time exposed it is wise to spend no more time than necessary near radiation sources 16

17. Consequence Reduce time in contact with radiation sources as much as compatible with the task Training of a particular task using non-radioactive dummy sources helps 17

18. Distance • It is recommended that an individual remains as far away as possible from the radiation source. • Procedures and radiation areas should be designed such that only minimum exposure takes place to individuals doing the procedures or staying in or near the radiation areas. 18

19. Patient with iodine-131 0.5 0.1 0.06 0.03 1000 MBq I-131 0 0.5 1 2 m 19

20. Consequence Distance is very efficient for radiation protection as the dose falls off in square Examples: long tweezers for handling of sources big rooms for imaging equipment 20

21. Shielding • Various high atomic number (Z) materials that absorb radiations can be used to provide radiation protection • The ranges of alpha and b particles are short in matter the containers themselves act as shields for these radiations • Alpha can be stopped by a piece of paper • Beta low molecular weight element Al or glass can stop its effect. (Whay don’t we use lead for shielding of beta radiation?) • Gama radiations are highly penetrating absorbing material must be used for shielding of g-emitting sources • Lead is most commonly used for this purpose. 21

22. Shielding Barrier thickness incident radiation transmitted radiation 22

23. Shielding Bench top shield Vial shields Syringe shields 23

24. SHIELDING OF SOURCES • Factors affecting the design: • radionuclide • activity • shielding material 24

25. Devices to measure personnel radiation exposure. • The film badge is most popular and cost-effective for personnel monitoring and gives reasonably accurate readings of exposures from b, g, and x radiations. • A: Pocket dosimeter. B: Film badge holder. • C: Film badge. D: Thermoluminescent chip in finger badge

26. Dos and Don’ts in Radiation Protection Practice • Do post radiation signs in radiation areas. • Do wear laboratory coats and gloves when working with radioactive • materials. • Do work in a ventilated fumehood when working with radioactive gases. • Do cover the trays and workbench with absorbent paper. • Do store and transport radioactive material in lead containers. • Do wear a film badge while working in the radiation laboratory. • Do identify all radionuclides and dates of assay on the containers.

27. Dos and Don’ts in Radiation Protection Practice • Do survey work areas for any contamination as frequently as possible. • Do clean up spills promptly, and survey the area after cleaning. • Do not eat, drink, or smoke in the radiation laboratory. • Do not pipette any radioactive material by mouth. • Do monitor hands and feet after the day’s work. • Do notify the RSO in case of any major spill or other emergencies related to radiation.

28. Radiopharmaceuticals • A radiopharmaceutical is a radioactive compound used for the diagnosis and therapeutic treatment of human diseases. • In nuclear medicine nearly 95% of the radiopharmaceuticals are used for diagnostic purposes while the rest are used for therapeutic treatment. • Radiopharmaceuticals usually have minimal pharmacologic effect • In most cases they are used in tracer quantities.

29. Ideal Radiopharmaceutical • Radiopharmaceuticals should possess some important characteristics • Easy availability • Short effective half life • Particle Emission • Decay by Electron Capture or Isomeric Transition • High Target-to-Nontarget Activity Ratio

30. Easy Availability • Should be easily produced • Inexpensive • Readily available in any nuclear medicine facility. • Complicated methods of production of radionuclides or labeled compounds increase the cost of the radiopharmaceutical. • The geographic distance between the user and the supplier also limits the availability of short-lived radiopharmaceuticals.

31. Short Effective Half-Life • A radionuclide decays with a definite half-life which is called the physical half-life Tp (or t1/2) • The physical half-life is independent of any physicochemical condition • Radiopharmaceuticals administered to humans disappear from the biological system through fecal or urinary excretion, perspiration, or other mechanisms

32. Short Effective Half-Life • This biologic disappearance of a radiopharmaceutical follows an exponential law similar to that of radionuclide decay • Every radiopharmaceutical has a biologic half-life (Tb) • The net or effective rate (λe) of the loss of radioactivity is then related to the physical decay constant λp and the biologic decay constant λb. • λ e = λp +‏ λb • Te =Tp X Tb Tp+Tb ‏

33. Short Effective Half-Life • The physical half-life of 111In is 67 hr and the biologic half-life of 111In-DTPA used for measurement of the glomerular filtration rate is 1.5 hr. What is the effective half-life of 111In-DTPA? • 1.47 hr • Radiopharmaceuticals should have a relatively short effective half-life which should not be longer than the time necessary to complete the study in question

34. Particle Emission • Radionuclides decaying by a- or b-particle emission should not be used as the label in diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals • Many b-emitting radionuclides such as 131I-iodinated compounds are often used for clinical studies

35. Decay by Electron Capture or Isomeric Transition • Radionuclides emitting particles are less desirable • The diagnostic radionuclides used should decay by electron capture or isomeric transition without any internal conversion. • For diagnostic studies the radionuclide must emit a g radiation with an energy preferably between 30 and 300 keV.

36. High Target-to-Nontarget Activity Ratio • For any diagnostic study it is desirable that the radiopharmaceutical be localized preferentially in the organ under study • Activity from nontarget areas can obscure the structural details of the picture of the target organ. • Target-to-nontarget activity ratio should be large.

37. Thank You