C H A P T E R 16

1. C H A P T E R 16 CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS IN SPORT AND EXERCISE

2. w Find out why absolute aerobic and cardiorespiratory endurance capacity increases from age 6 to age 20. (continued) Learning Objectives w Find out at what age height and weight reach its peak rate of growth in boys and girls. w Learn what changes occur with maximal and submaximal heart rate and pulmonary function and with growth. w Discover how growth affects stroke volume and cardiac output at fixed rates of work.

3. Learning Objectives w Learn how training improves aerobic and anaerobic capacities in prepubescent children. w Discover how children can improve their strength safely. w Review the effects of physical activity and regular training on a child’s growth and maturation. w Examine the differences between children and adults with respect to thermoregulation.

4. Maturation—process of taking on the adult form and function – measured or expressed in different ways: w Chronological age w Skeletal age w Stage of sexual maturation Terminology Growth—an increase in the size of the body or its parts Development—the functional changes that occur with growth

5. Phases of Growth and Development Infancy—first year of life Childhood—age 1 to puberty Puberty—development of secondary sex characteristics and capability of sexual reproduction; usually 8-12 years old Adolescence—puberty to completion of growth and development

6. RATE OF INCREASE IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

7. Bone Ossification: Transformation from Cartilate to Bone

8. Bone Growth w Is complete when cartilage cells stop growing and epiphyseal plates are replaced by bone (by early 20s; varies from pre-teens to mid-20s; 2-3 yrs earlier in girls) w Requires rich blood supply to deliver essential nutrients w Requires calcium to build and maintain strength; vitamin D promotes calcium absorption from the small intestine during digestion w Growth slows when blood calcium levels are too low; can lead later in life to osteoporosis w Is helped by gravity-resisting exercise, which loads the bone, affecting bone width, density, and strength

9. Fractures of the epiphyseal plate w Disrupts the blood supply w Disrupts growth, which can lead to limb length discrepancies Traumatic epiphysitis w Inflammation of epiphysis from overuse (pitchers) w Can lead to separation of epiphysis w If caught early it can be treated without permanent damage Bone Injuries and Growth

10. Muscle Growth w Results primarily from hypertrophy of existing fibers due to increase in myofilaments and myofibrils w Muscle length increases with bone growth due to increase in the number of sarcomeres in series w Boys’ muscle mass peaks at about 50% of body weight at 18 to 25 years w Girls’ muscle mass peaks at about 40% of body weight at 16 to 20 years

11. Growth and Fat Storage w Fat is stored starting at birth w Fat is stored by increasing the size and number of fat cells, but cells can only increase to a certain maximum volume and then new cells are formed w Fat storage depends on diet, exercise habits, and heredity w At maturity, fat content averages about 15% in males and about 25% in females

12. Skinfold Thickness: an Estimate of Fatness

13. CHANGES IN FAT AND FAT-FREE MASS

14. Key Points Tissue Growth and Development w Girls mature physiologically about 2 years earlier than boys w Balance, agility, and coordination improve as children’s nervous systems develop. w Myelination of neurons in the cerebral cortex—which speeds the transmission of impulses in those neurons—is necessary before fast reactions and skills are fully developed. This is usually not completed until during adolescence.

15. Physiological Responses to Exercise w Strength increases wGains in strength with growth also depend on neural maturation because neuromuscular control is limited until myelination is complete, usually around sexual maturity. w Blood volume, heart size, and blood pressure increase w Heart rate decreases w Aerobic and anaerobic capacities and running economy increase w Lung volume and peak flow increase

16. STRENGTH GAINS WITH AGE These data are for boys only.

17. Composite Strength Changes with Development PHV = peak height velocity

18. Blood pressure w Lower in children but progressively increases to adult levels in later teens w Larger body size results in higher blood pressure Cardiovascular function at a given oxygen uptake w Smaller heart size and total blood volume of children result in a lower stroke volume w Heart rate response is higher than adults at given rate of submaximal work w Lower cardiac output than adults w Therefore, a higher a-vO2 diff than adults Submaximal Exercise and Growth

19. HR and SV as a Function of Oxygen Uptake

20. . Q and a-vO2 as a Function of Oxygen Uptake

21. . w Maximal stroke volume and Qmax are lower in children than in adults. Key Points Maximal Exercise and Growth w HRmax is higher in children but decreases linearly with age. w Lower oxygen delivery capacity (blood volume and pump capacity) limits performance at high absolute rates of work.

22. . w VEmax increases with age until physical maturity at which point it begins to decrease with age. Key Points Lung Function and Growth w As body size increases, lung size and lung function increase. w Lung volumes and peak flow increase until growth is complete. w Boys' absolute lung volumes and peak flow values are higher than girls' absolute values due to girls’ smaller body size.

23. . w VO2max (L/min) peaks around age 17 to 21 in males and then decreases linearly with age. . w VO2max (L/min) has been shown to peak around age 12 to 15 in females, though the decrease after age 15 may be due to females tending to reduce physical activity. . w Absolute VO2max (L/min) is lower in children than adults at similar training levels. . w When VO2max is expressed relative to body weight, there is little difference in aerobic capacity between adults and children, thus, additional muscle mass increases maximal oxygen consumption. Aerobic Capacity in Children w Relative to body weight, running economy is lower inchildren compared to adults.

24. . CHANGES IN VO2MAX WITH AGE Absolute (i.e., l/min) Relative to body weight (i.e., ml/kg/min)

25. Anaerobic Capacity in Children w Ability to perform anaerobic activities is lower than in adults w Glycolytic capacity (i.e., glycolytic enzyme levels) is lower w Produce less lactate and cannot attain as high RER values during maximal exercise as adults • Anaerobic mean and peak power outputs are lower than in adults, even when scaled for body mass

26. OPTIMAL ANAEROBIC POWER OUTPUT

27. Aerobic and Anaerobic Capacities as a % of Adult Levels Adult Level

28. Resistance Training in Preadolescents w May protect against injury and help build bones w Improves motor skill coordination w Increases strength largely through increased neural activation of motor units w Causes little change in muscle size (i.e., little hypertrophy) and is considered safe if not overdone

29. Theoretical Model for Strength Development for Boys How would the model differ for girls?

30. w Aerobic training improves cardiorespiratory endurance performance in children, but the changes in VO2max are less than expected. . (continued) Key Points Training the Young Athlete w Training programs for children should be conservative to reduce the risk of injury, overtraining, and loss of interest in the sport. w An appropriate resistance training program is relatively safe for children.

31. Key Points Training the Young Athlete w Anaerobic capacity increases with anaerobic training. w Regular training typically results in decreased total body fat, increased fat-free mass, and increased total body mass. w Generally, training does not appear to significantly alter growth and maturation rates.

32. Motor Ability and Sport Performance wMotor ability in boys generally increases for the first 18 years of life, although in girls it tends to plateau around puberty. wSports performance improves dramatically through childhood and adolescence.

33. Changes in Motor Ability with Age

34. 100-m freestyle 400-m freestyle Age Group U.S. National Swimming Records

35. 100-m run 1,500-m run Age Group U.S. National Track Records

36. Thermal Stress and Children w Evaporative heat loss is lower due to less sweat produced by sweat glands. w Acclimatization to heat is slower in boys than adult men; this presumably is also true in girls. w Conductive heat loss and gain is greater because of the child’s greater ratio of body surface area to mass, increasing risk for hypothermia in cold environments and hyperthermia in extremely hot environments (i.e., when environmental temperature is higher than body temperature). w Exercising in extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, should be minimized in children.