Athlone Institute of Technology Counselling and Psychotherapy

Athlone Institute of TechnologyCounselling and Psychotherapy Eithne Kellegher Year 3 Semester 1 September 2010

General Systems Theory [GST]: The evolution of Systemic Therapy was influenced by General Systems Theory. Ludwig von Bertalanffy is credited with developing the concept of General Systems Theory which were presented in the mid 1940s

von Bertalanffy ‘….believed that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts and in order to understand how an organism works we must study the transactional processes occurring between the components of the system and notice emerging patterns and the organized relationship between the parts.’ Dallos and Draper 2000:19

Keys ideas related to Systems Theory (1): • …a system comprises a whole made up of interrelated parts, and that, crucially, change in any one part affects the rest of the system. • Focus on what goes on between people rather than what takes place inside them • Functioning systems tend to be homeostatic in the way that they operate

Keys ideas related to Systems Theory (2): • Influential idea found in general systems theory is the notion that all systems are based on a set of rules • Another key concept is the idea relating to the life-cycle of the system. Predictable transitions e.g. leaving home, getting married, birth of a child etc. Unpredictable transitions e.g. illness, untimely deaths (McLeod 2003:192-193)

Systemic thinking (1): ‘Systemic thinking is not an explanatory theory. It does not explain why organizations behave as they do. Rather, it is a framework for observing and understanding the world in terms of connections amongst its many parts.’ Campbell, Coldicott & Kinsella 1994:10

Systemic thinking (2): ‘The central insight that intellectually united the pioneers of the family therapy movement was that human problems are essentially interpersonal, not intrapersonal, and so their resolution requires an approach to intervention which directly addresses relationships between people.’ (Carr, A. 2000:48)

The concept of Family Therapy which is an idea that families are systems of humans in interaction with one another is relatively new. Since the 1940s a diversity of theorists and therapists have progressed the ideas, in continuously developing forms, which have influenced the practice of systems based therapies. Jones, E. 1993

John Bell • John Bell (psychologist) is believed to be the first family therapist as he started to see families in the 1950s • His ideas were influenced by concepts related to group therapy but did not publish his ideas until a decade later • He did not develop a significant clinic, training programme nor did he train eminent students

Gregory Bateson 1904-1980 (1) Bateson was a British born anthropologist and ethnologist who studied communication patterns in Bali and New Guinea. He was very strong theoretically, and in the 1950s was involved in researching schizophrenia with Don Jackson in Palo Alto, California

Gregory Bateson (2) Bateson recognised the usefulness of applying mathematical, engineering and biological concepts to the social and behavioural sciences, in that….

Gregory Bateson (3) ‘….a family could be viewed as a cybernetic system, particularly since by assuming social systems, like physical and mechanical systems, were rule governed, both the uniformity and variability of human nature could be accounted for.’ (Dallos & Draper 2000:19)

Nathan Ackerman (1908-1971) child psychiatrist and psychoanalyst • First published an article about family function in 1937 • He saw family problems being rooted in conflict • Initially used the model of the psychiatrist seeing the child and social worker seeing the mother, but after a year moved to seeing the family together where there was a difficulty in a family with a child • Founded the Ackerman Family Institute in 1960

Palo Alto Group (1) formed in the ‘50s • The Palo Alto group included Gregory Bateson, Don Jackson, and Jay Haley and became interested in family therapy in the context of studying schizophrenia • Jackson’s (1920-1968) theory ‘family homeostasis’ defined families as units that resisted change particularly under stress – an idea that captured F.T. for 30 years

Palo Alto group (2) • Haley (1923-2007) conceptualised all behaviour, even symptomotology, as ‘normal’ given its context • In 1967 Haley joined Minuchin (Structural Family Therapy) and then in 1974 formed the Washington Institute of Family Therapy where he became interested in issues related to power and hierarchy

Palo Alto Group (1): Although Bateson never practiced as a therapist he had significant influenced on theoretical concepts. The Palo Alto group made significant theoretical contributions particularly with the following 3 concepts;

Palo Alto Group (2): • The Double-Bind Theory • Levels of communication – digital/analogue communication and verbal/non-verbal behaviour (report and command function) • Systems theory and Cybernetics – framework which allows one to think about family organisation and processes, thereby offer explanation for abnormal behaviour(Carr, A. 2000:57-67).

Communication systems and Bateson (1): In the context of communications systems Bateson spoke about sequences resembling stimulus-and-response rather than cause-and-effect. Example used by Bateson; Billiard ball hits another – transfer of energy from one to another (cause and effect). If one kicks a dog his response is as a result of his metabolism – not the kick [Bateson 1978-Steps to an ecology of mind]

Communication systems and Bateson (2): It must be also remembered that the dogs response is going to be determined by the relationship with the ‘kicker’ as well as experiences in relationships with others. Does he bite, does he run or does he do something else??

Norbert Weiner: Weiner 1894-1964 was a American theoretical and applied mathematician. Wiener founded cybernetics which formalises the notion of feedback and has had implications for engineering, computer science as well as biology and the organisation of society

Cybernetics (1) Cybernetics: ‘The study of control processes in systems, especially the analysis of positive and negative feedback loops First order cybernetics: ‘The idea that an outside observer can study and make changes in a system while remaining separate and independent of that system

First-order Cybernetics (1): • Modernist position • First-order Cybernetics regards communication to be quite mechanistic • Exchange of meaning was disregarded and the influence of language was down played • Therapist was largely seen as the expert

First-order Cybernetics (2): ‘…First-order Cybernetics is concerned, first, with questions relating to the way in which systems maintain their organization, and second, with the way in which systems change their organization. This approach is characterised by an assumption that the observer stands outside the thing observed, and is therefore objective.’ Jones, E. 1993:20

Second-order Cybernetics • Post-modernist position • Was seen as a radical shift in thinking from the First-order perspective • Critical of the ‘overly mechanistic’ view of families • More cognisant of meaning, beliefs, explanations and stories of families • Therapist less of an expert and more of a collaborative explorer with the family

Morphogenesis and Morphostasis: • The process by which systems change and evolve (genesis) or retain stability (stasis) (Carr 2000:73) • Bateson’s group posited where families may feel it’s integrity is under threat of change, one family member may develop problematic behaviour in order to maintain homeostasis or stability

Feedback Feedback can be determined to be either; POSITIVE FEEDBACK (elicits more of the antecedent behaviour) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK (elicits less of the preceding behaviour)

Bateson and feedback • Bateson thought it useful to notice recurring patterns which may be described as habits and may be useful to observers to better understand patterns that maybe redundant or unsatisfactory to participants • As FT evolved this position was challenged given how the observer may privilege, bias, prejudice, select and/or highlight particular areas in conversation • [1st order versus 2nd order cybernetics] Jones, E. 1993

Historical evolution of Systemic Therapy (Family Therapy) Dallos and Draper (2000) describes the evolution of Family Therapy occurring over three phases: • First phase - 1950s to mid 1970s • Second phase - mid 1970s to mid 1980s • Third phase - mid 1980s to present day

Phase 1 - 1950s-mid1970s • Modernist in approach • Influenced by psychoanalysis • Interested in family of origin • Interested in sequences of behaviour and communication and the influence on maintenance and development of the problem

Phase 2 - mid1970s-mid1980s • Post-modernism • Second-order cybernetics • Constructivism and Social constructionist • Beliefs and perceptions became prominent • Therapist seen as part of the system • Milan model v. strong in this phase • Solution focused therapy (De Shazar) • Narrative therapy (White) in early stage of development

Phase 3 - mid1980s - present day • Post-modernism • Language and dialogue very prominent in this phase • Acknowledgement of gender, race, social issues, class religion

Development of Systems Theory and therapy (1): • Grew from dissatisfaction in individual therapies and psychoanalysis especially with severe clinical problems e.g. schizophrenia; • Surfacing of general systems theory and research in relation to human interaction(Bateson et al. 1956)

Development of Systems Theory and therapy (2): • Research into the function of communication in the development and maintenance of severe clinical problems e.g. schizophrenia • Advance of group therapies which revealed the powerful impact of bringing groups of people together therapeutically

First phase 1950s to mid 1970s (1) Examples of schools of psychotherapy: • Palo Alto group interested in communication and patterns • Murray Bowen – ‘Differentiation of self’, developed family therapy and used the term ‘triangualation’. Visiting one’s family of origin became the cornerstone of Bowen’s approach to training

First phase 1950s to mid 1970s (2) • Nathan Ackerman – psychoanalytic roots, saw meeting families as a means to treat and diagnose • Structural Family Therapy - Minuchin • Strategic Family Therapy - Erikson

Structural Family Therapy (1)- Salvador Minuchin • Worked with delinquent boys in Philadelphia as he had received to carry out research in late 50s/early 60s • Found marginalised groups were not particularly adept verbally • Responded more positively to behavioural interventions • He believed changing behaviour in a family brought about change in beliefs -‘seeing is believing’

Structural Family Therapy (2) • Minuchin was the first to use two way mirrors in order for team to learn from each other and to teach family therapy

Structural Family Therapy (3) Structural family therapist are interested in: • How a family interacts with each other • What rules and communication patterns define these interactions • They observe the hierarchy and the boundaries in the family • Believed that needed to be able to manage transitions effectively

Structural Family Therapy (4) • Minuchin believed it was important for families to have flexibility to facilitate experimentation with alternate patterns at times of transition and to use, or dispose of them depending on how they work

Structural Family Therapy (5)3 subsystems: • Spousal subsystem; family starts with this subsystem – one role of subsystem is to determine boundary of extended family • Parenting subsystem; couple become parents and negotiate parenting style. Children learn about authority and effective communication • Sibling subsystem; Children learn so much from each other-how to play, fight, negotiate and to support each other

Structural Family Therapy (6)Boundaries: • Enmeshment; an intense or over involved way a family relate to each other – strong sense of belonging, boundaries are poorly defined and easily crossed over with little autonomy or independence • Disengagement; rigid and inflexible boundaries, extremely independent but little sense of connection or loyalty

Structural Family Therapy (7)Boundaries: In order to function effectively, a family needs to have clearly defined boundaries as well as having flexible and permeable boundaries in order to manage periods of transition and/or crisis

Structural Family Therapy (8)Interventions: Therapist seen as the expert: • Joining – engage and develop rapport • Enactment • Unbalancing • Restructuring • Boundary marking

Structural Family Therapy (9)Interventions: • Enactment: Family asked to act out patterns that occur at home e.g. eat a meal together • Unbalancing: unbalance an individual or subsystem by ignoring family rules and by challenging existing family structure

Structural Family Therapy (10)Interventions: • Restructuring; Using interventions such as enactments, boundary making, unbalancing or reframing to challenge the prevailing family structure • Boundary marking; regulating the flow in information in the family i.e. each person spoke for him/herself and children were not permitted to join parental subsystem

Exercise: explore and assess: A client has presented for a first session-use case you have worked with: • What is the problem? What brings you here today? What are the consequences of the problem for the client and his/her r’ships? • Where do you think it comes from? • Where can we look for explanations? • When did you first notice it? Who else knows about the problem? • Who else is aware of the problem? What’s their understanding? Why is it happening now

References • Barker, P. (2007). Basic family therapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Blackwell • Bateson, G., Jackson, D., Haley, J., & Weakland, J. (1956). Toward a theory of schizophrenia. Behavioural Science, 1, 251-264) • Bell, J. (1961). Family group therapy. Bookstall Publications • Campbell, D., Coldicott, T. & Kinsella, K. (1994). Systemic work with organizations. London: Karnac • Carr, A. (2000). Family therapy: Concepts, process and practice. Chichester: Wiley • Dallos, R. & Draper, R. (2000). An introduction to family therapy. Maidenhead: Open University Press • Jones, E. (1993). Family systems therapy. Chichester: Wiley

Athlone Institute of Technology Counselling and Psychotherapy