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Chapter Goals

Chapter Goals. Describe numbering systems and their use in data representation Compare and contrast various data representation methods Describe how nonnumeric data is represented Describe common data structures and their uses. Data Representation and Processing.

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Chapter Goals

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  1. Chapter Goals • Describe numbering systems and their use in data representation • Compare and contrast various data representation methods • Describe how nonnumeric data is represented • Describe common data structures and their uses Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  2. Data Representation and Processing • Capabilities required of any data/information processor–organic, mechanical, electrical, optical: • Recognizing external data and converting it to an appropriate internal format • Storing and retrieving data internally • Transporting data among internal storage and processing components • Manipulating data to produce desired results or decisions Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  3. Automated Data Processing • Data is converted from native format into a form suitable for the processing device • Computers represent data electrically and process it with electrical switches • Laws of electricity can be stated as mathematical equations • Electronic devices perform computational functions embedded in the equations Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  4. A + B = C Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  5. Binary Data Representation • Binary number • Only one of two possible values (0 or 1) per digit • Reliably transported among computer system components • Can be processed by two–state electrical devices (relatively easy to design and fabricate) • Correspond directly with values in Boolean logic Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  6. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  7. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  8. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  9. Hexadecimal Notation • Uses 16 as its base or radix (hex = 6, and decimal = 10) • Compact; advantage over binary notation • Often used to designate memory addresses Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  10. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  11. Octal Notation • Uses base 8 numbering system • Has a range of digits from 0 to 7 • Expresses large numeric values in: • One-third the length of corresponding binary notation • Double the length of corresponding hexadecimal notation Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  12. Goals of Computer Data Representation • Compactness • Accuracy • Range • Ease of manipulation • Standardization Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  13. Goals of Computer Data Representation (continued) • Compactness • Describes number of bits used to represent a numeric value • More compact data representation format; less expense to implement in computer hardware • Accuracy • Precision of representation increases with number of data bits used Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  14. Goals of Computer Data Representation (continued) • Ease of manipulation • Machine efficiency when executing processor instructions (addition, subtraction, equality comparison) • Processor efficiency depends on its complexity • Standardization • Ensures correct and efficient data transmission • Provides flexibility to combine hardware from different vendors with minimal data communication problems Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  15. CPU Data Types • Primitive data types • Integer • Real number • Character • Boolean • Memory address • Representation format for each type balances compactness, accuracy, ease of manipulation, and standardization Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  16. Integers • A whole number—a value that does not have a fractional part • Data formats can be signed or unsigned • Determines largest and smallest values that can be represented • Excess notation • Two’s complement notation (most common) • Range and overflow Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  17. Excess Notation • Can be used to represent signed integers • Divides a range of ordinary binary numbers in half; uses lower half for negative values and upper half for nonnegative values • Always uses a fixed number of bits with the leftmost bit representing the sign (1 for nonnegative and 0 for negative values) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  18. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  19. Two’s Complement Notation • Nonnegative integer values are represented as ordinary binary values • Compatible with digital electronic circuitry • Leftmost bit represents the sign • Fixed number of bit positions • Only two logic circuits required to perform addition on single-bit values • Subtraction can be performed as addition of a negative value Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  20. Range and Overflow • Overflow • Occurs when absolute value of a computational result contains too many bits to fit into fixed-width data format • Avoiding overflow • Double precision data formats • Careful programming Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  21. Range and Overflow • Choose data format width by balancing: • Numeric range • Chance of overflow during program execution • Complexity, cost, and speed of processing and storage devices Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  22. Real Numbers • Contain both whole and fractional components • Require separation of components to be represented within computer circuitry • Fixed radix point (simple) • Floating point notation (complex) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  23. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  24. Floating Point Notation • Similar to scientific notation, except that 2 is the base • value = mantissa x 2exponent • Trades numeric range for accuracy • Value can have many digits of precision for large or small magnitudes, but not both simultaneously • Less accurate and more difficult to process than two’s complement format Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  25. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  26. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  27. Range, Overflow, and Underflow • Range • Limited by number of bits in a floating point string and formats of mantissa and exponent fields • Overflow • Can occur within the exponent • Underflow • Occurs when absolute value of a negative exponent is too large to fit within allocated bits Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  28. Precision and Truncation • Precision • Accuracy is reduced as the number of digits available to store mantissa is reduced • Truncation • Stores numeric value in the mantissa until available bits are consumed; discards remaining bits • Causes an error or approximation which can magnify • Programmers avoid by using integer types Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  29. Processing Complexity • Floating point formats • Optimized for processing efficiency • Require complex processing circuitry (translates to difference in speed) • Programmers never use real numbers when an integer will suffice (speed and accuracy) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  30. Character Data • Represented indirectly by defining a table that assigns numeric values to individual characters • Characteristics of coding methods • All users must share same coding/decoding method • Coded values must be capable of being stored or transmitted • Specific method represents a tradeoff among compactness, ease of manipulation, accuracy, range, and standardization Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  31. Common Coding Methods • EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) • ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) • Subset of Unicode • Device control • Software and hardware support Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  32. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  33. (Partial listing) Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  34. ASCII Limitations • Insufficient range • Uses 7-bit code, providing 128 table entries (33 for device control) • 95 printable characters can be represented • English-based Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  35. Unicode • Assigns nonnegative integers to represent individual printable characters (like ASCII) • Larger coding table than ASCII • Uses 16-bit code providing 65,536 table entries • Can represent written text from all modern languages • Widely supported in modern software Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  36. Boolean Data • Has only two data values—true and false • Potentially most concise coding format; only a single bit is required Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  37. Memory Addresses • Identifying numbers of memory bytes in primary storage • Simple or complex numeric values depending on memory model used by CPU • Flat memory addresses (single integer) • Segmented memory addresses (multiple integers) • Require definition of specific coding format Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  38. Data Structures • Related groups of primitive data elements organized for a type of common processing • Defined and manipulated within software • Commonly used data structures: arrays, linked lists, records, tables, files, indices, and objects • Many use pointers to link primitive data components Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  39. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  40. Pointers and Addresses • Pointer • Data element that contains the address of another data element • Address • Location of a data element within a storage device Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  41. Arrays and Lists • List • A set of related data values • Array • An ordered list in which each element can be referenced by an index to its position Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  42. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  43. Linked Lists • Data structures that use pointers so list elements can be scattered among nonsequential storage locations • Singly linked lists • Doubly linked lists • Easier to expand or shrink than an array Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  44. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  45. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  46. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  47. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  48. Records and Files • Records • Data structures composed of other data structures or primitive data elements • Used as a unit of input and output to files • Files • Sequence of records on secondary storage Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

  49. Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition

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