Achieving Nationalist Goals in Italy and Germany

1. When Revolutions Fail . . . Achieving Nationalist Goals in Italy and Germany

2. Realpolitik After 1850, European political leaders became less interested in policies shaped by idealism (liberalism and nationalism). Instead, they pursued the interests of their states with coldly realistic considerations of power and little regard for ideals or morality.

3. Two Masters of Realpolitik Leaders of Italian and German Unification Movements Camillo di Cavourfrom Piedmont-Sardinia Otto von Bismarck from Prussia

4. Question of the Day: Why did Cavour and Bismarck succeed in uniting their nations, whereas all attempts before them had failed?

5. 1850 Italy Lombardy & Venetia, the richest part of Italy, under Austrian control Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by Victor Emmanuel II, a king from the House of Savoy Modena, Parma, & Tuscany, independent duchies Papal States, under temporal and spiritual control of Pope Pius IX Kingdom of the 2 Sicilies, ruled by Ferdinand II, a Spanish Bourbon

6. Failures of 1848 • Uprisings in Naples suppressed, separatist Sicilians forced to reunite • Broken Promises of Constitutions: Papal States, Tuscany, Piedmont • Failure of Mazzini’s Roman Republic • Old Dukes of Modena, Parma, Tuscany restored by Austrian forces

7. Reasons for Failure: • 1. lack of cooperation among revolutionaries • 2. liberals insisted on constitutions in each state before unification; radicals disagreed • 3. different ideas of unity: • Mazzini -- a republic • Pope Pius IX -- a confederation • Charles Albert -- a kingdom • 4. lack of popular support • 5. superiority of Austrian forces

8. . . . from The Duties of Man “O my brothers, love your Country! Our country is our Home, the house that God has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom we love; Our country is our common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world.” Giuseppe Mazzini(1805-1872) The Soul

9. Cavour's Tactics • encouraged trade and industry • expanded railway net in Piedmont • promoted agricultural production • joined Britain and France vs. Russia in the Crimean War • secret agreement with Napoleon III at Plombières The Brain

10. Plombières, July 1858 • Napoleon III pledged to support Cavour in any war vs. Austria, as long as Austria attacked first • Napoleon accepted Piedmont’s right to annex Austria’s lands in northern Italy • Napoleon agreed to the formation of an Italian confederation with Piedmont in control of the northern part of the peninsula • In return, Cavour offered to give Napoleon Savoy and Nice (two ethnically French sections of Piedmont)

11. Cavour's Tactics “The experience of recent years and previous centuries has proved how little Italy has benefitted from conspiracies, revolutions, and disorderly uprisings …. Now, gentlemen, I believe that the principal condition for the improvement of Italy’s fate, the condition that stands out above all others, is to lift up her reputation once more. . . . And for this two things are necessary: first, to prove to Europe that Italy has sufficient civic sense to govern herself freely and according to law, and that she is in a condition to adopt the very best forms of government; second, to prove that her military valor is as great as that of her ancestors.” (From a speech to the Parliament of Piedmont, 1855)

12. Success! A United Northern Italy • Cavour’s armies defeated Austrians in the summer of 1859, driving them from Lombardy. • Meanwhile, in the Papal States and other parts of central Italy, revolts broke out as people aimed to overthrow their leaders and join Piedmont! • Finally, Napoleon had second thoughts about supporting Italy, and allowed Cavour to take only Lombardy.

13. Meanwhile, in the South . . . Garibaldi Returns! Leading a volunteer-army of Red Shirts, he marched up from the south, and kingdoms all along the way fell to his rebels. Giuseppe Garibaldi(1807-1882)

14. “Italians!—The Sicilians are fighting against the enemies of Italy, and for Italy. It is the duty of every Italian to succour them with words, money, and arms, and, above all, in person. . . . Listen not to the voice of cowards, but arm, and let us fight for our brethren, who will fight for us tomorrow. . . . The Sword

15. Cavour Hits the Brakes As Garibaldi’s armies approached Rome, Cavour decided to take action to prevent him from further conquest.

16. Garibaldi gives in, and accepts Victor Emmanuel, Piedmont’s king, as ruler in 1860.

17. Historiography: • Traditional view: unification achieved through cooperation of Cavour & Garibaldi • Dennis Mack Smith: Italy unified despite the fact that Cavour and Garibaldi distrusted each other • Idealist view: a culmination of Risorgimento liberalism and nationalism • Fascist view: (same as above but no liberalism) • Marxist view: unification (and nationalism) was a way for the middle classes to gain power

18. King Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed Constitutional King of Italy, March 1861 “[T]he national unity which is today attained will have, I hope, the effect of rendering less bitter the struggles of parties, the rivalry of which will have henceforth no other end than the development of the productive forces of the nation.”

20. Germany, 1850 • Forces Uniting Germans: •  _____________________ •  reaction against Napoleon •  ______________________ •  traditions, customs, literature • Forces Dividing Germans: •  ___________________ •  ___________________ •  ________________________________

21. Prussia Takes the Lead • Prussia?! • - • little popular involvement in politics, as the Diet had few true powers • -

22. Prussia Takes the Lead • Yeah, Prussia!! • - • industry, banks, road/rail networks • -

23. Otto von Bismarck • A True Conservative . . . • meant to preserve the monarchy German Chancellor 1862-1890

24. Otto von Bismarck • . . . in Liberal Nationalist • Disguise! • courted the middle-class for success

25. Bismarck's Rise to Power •  Prussia’s King Wilhelm I desired military reform . . . • . •  Liberals in parliament said NO, so . . . • Wilhelm selected Bismarck as chancellor to break the deadlock. Bismarck sent Prussianbureaucrats to collect taxes ___________ ___________, and the people willingly paid!

26. Bismarck’s • "Iron and Blood" speech • September 29, 1862 • “Not by speeches and decisions of majorities will the greatest problems of the time be decided-that was the mistake of 1848-49-but by iron and blood.” Franz von Lehnbach, Otto von Bismarck , oil on canvas, 1879German Historical Museum, Berlin

27. Bismarck's Wars • 1863 supports Russia in putting down Polish Rebellion • Biarritz agreement with Napoleon III • 1866

28. . . . and Their Results • Prussia defeated Austria, annexing _____________, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, Nassau, and Frankfurt

29. . . . and Their Results •  Proof of Prussian • military • superiority • 1866 :Bismarck admitted government fault in collecting taxes illegally in return for retroactive Diet approval

30. But what about southern Germans? • Most southern German states had little interest in a merger with north Germany in the 1860s, so . . .

31. Franco-Prussian War  A Hohenzollern candidate for ______________?  The ______________________ to Bismarck: "Count Benedetti intercepted me on the promenade and ended by demanding of me in a very importunate manner that I should authorize him to telegraph at once that I bound myself in perpetuity never again to give my consent if the Hohenzollerns renewed their candidature. I rejected this demand _______________ as it is neither right nor possible to undertake engagements of this kind.”

32. Bismarck’s Edited, Press-Released • Version of the Ems Telegram: • "After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a further _______ • ____________ the King that he should authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook ______________________to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once more take up their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed by the adjutant of the day that His Majesty had ___________ • ____________________ to make to the Ambassador."

34. Results of the Franco-Prussian War •  French defeat at the Battle of Sedan • ( )

35. Results of the Franco-Prussian War •  Creation of the German Empire, Jan. 1871 • ; constitution seen as a gift from the princes to the German people rather than a right of the people • Reichstag = ____________________but little true power • Bundesrat = ______________________

36. Results of the Franco-Prussian War •  Treaty of Frankfurt, Feb. 1871 • national humiliation for France • ceremonial entry to Paris by Prussian army

37. A New Nation, Born in War

39. What Was Bismarck's Role?  Was Bismarck a genius diplomat, architect of a long-laid plan of German unification? “What an extraordinary man Bismarck is! He meets me for the first time and tells me all he is going to do. He will attack Denmark in order to get possession of Schleswig-Holstein, he will put Austria out of the German confederation; and then he will attack France -- an extraordinary man!” (British PM Disraeli on a meeting with Bismarck in 1862)  Was Bismarck merely a master opportunist? “By himself the individual can create nothing; he can wait [only] until he hears God’s footsteps resounding through events and then spring forward to grasp the hem of his mantle!” (Bismarck himself)

40. Bismarck Quotations "Politics is the art of the possible, the attainable . . . the art of the next best." "Laws are like sausages. It's better not to see them being made." "Better pointed bullets than pointed words." "Never believe in anything until it has been officially denied." "I am bored. The great things are done. The German Reich is made." "A generation that has taken a beating is always followed by a generation that deals one." "Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans." (Bismarck's prediction on what would trigger the next war)