Science

1. Science By Dr OJ Tsotetsi

2. What is science? • refers to any systematic knowledge or practice • refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research. • Scientific vs. natural • Science employ scientific method

3. What is the scientific method? How does science operate? A description of how science can proceed and how scientists develop and justify reliable knowledge claims about the word - at least ideally. Scientific method refers to the body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurableevidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses

4. Elements of scientific method The essential elements of a scientific method are iterations, recursions, interleavings, and orderings of the following: Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry) Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject) Predictions (reasoning including logicaldeduction from the hypothesis or theory) Experiments (tests of all of the above)

5. Scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity Each element of a scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. The following set of methodological elements and organization of procedures tends to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social sciences. In the social sciences mathematical and statistical methods of verification and hypotheses testing may be less stringent.

6. Steps for scientific methods • Define the question • Gather information and resources (observe) • Form hypothesis • Perform experiment and collect data • Analyze data • Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis • Publish results • Retest (frequently done by other scientists)

7. Your question • Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? • And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.

8. Do literature search • Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

9. Construct a hypothesis • Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.

10. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment • Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

11. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion • Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way.

12. Publish • Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report

14. What is a law of science? • Do scientific laws mean that there is a lawgiver? Does science deal with truth and facts or just theories? An attempt to explain what scientific laws and truths are about.

15. What are scientific theories? • What makes an idea scientific? An explanation of the various logical, empirical, sociological, historical and even legal criteria used to define science and scientific theories.

16. What is Research? • Everywhere, our knowledge is incomplete and problems are waiting to be solved. We address the void in our knowledge and those unresolved problems by asking relevant questions and seeking answers to them. The role of research is to provide a method for obtaining those answers by inquiringly studying the evidence within the parameters of the scientific method.

17. Characteristics of Formal Research • Research originates with a question or problem. • Research requires a clear articulation of a goal. • Research follows a specific plan of procedure. • Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems. • Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis. • Research accepts certain critical assumptions. • Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research. • Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.

18. Types of research • The qualitative versus quantitative approach

19. Qualitative approach • The qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain insights into phenomena of interest, data analysis includes the coding of the data and production of a verbal synthesis (inductive process) • Historical research • Qualitative research • Case study • Group focus • interviews

20. Quantitative approach • The quantitative approaches involve the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena of interest, data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process) • Descriptive research • Correlational research • Causal-comparative research • Experimental Research

21. Types of Research Designs • Exploratory Research (huh?) • Designed to generate basic knowledge, clarify relevant issues uncover variables associated with a problem, uncover information needs, and/or define alternatives for addressing research objectives. • A very flexible, open-ended process. • Descriptive Research (who, what, where, how) • Designed to provide further insight into the research problem by describing the variables of interest. • Can be used for profiling, defining, segmentation, estimating, predicting, and examining associative relationships. • Causal Research (If-then) • Designed to provide information on potential cause-and-effect relationships. • Most practical in marketing to talk about associations or impact of one variable on another.

22. Types and Characteristics of Exploratory Studies • Literature Search • Conceptual literature • Trade literature • Published statistics • Library homepage • Analysis of Selected Cases • Intensive study of related cases or past activities • May be internal or external • Can help provide clues as to how other units or companies have dealt with similar issues

23. Types and Characteristics of Exploratory Studies • Experience Surveys (a.k.a., depth interviews) • Knowledgeable people with varying points of view • Unstructured and informal interviews • Respondent free to choose issues to be discussed • Focus Groups • 8 to 10 people at one time • Relatively homogeneous groups • Multiple, heterogeneous groups • Group dynamics • Moderator is key • Relies on general topical guide with plenty of time for interaction

24. Acknowledgement www.uah.edu/library