Comparing news programmes

1. Comparing news programmes A frameworkforcomparisonand evidentialityin TV news

2. Analysis • A descriptiveframeworktodescribe news programmes: • Framing, focusing, realising, closing • Linguistic, discursive, semantic

3. framing • the concept of frame is repeatedly invoked in media research • the term is mainly used to represent some form of interpretative coding, or ‘schema’ • privileging one interpretation over another by a number of means

4. Verbal and visual • ‘through repetition, placement, and reinforcing associations with each other, the words and images that comprise the [news] frame render one basic interpretation more readily discernible, comprehensible and memorable than others’ (Entman 1991: 7)

5. reveal ‘critical textual choices’ • choices that seem natural and unremarkable unless comparison with other sets of textual choices exposes their central role in helping to establish what he calls ‘the “common sense” (i.e., widespread) interpretation of events’ (Entman 1991: 6).

6. Three levels • our analysis of framing involves attention to three levels of meaning: • linguistic, • discursive, • and visual • each of which, combines to produce particular perspectives on, and conceptualisations of the topic or issue through the representation of the news event.

7. Linguistic • features of the verbal text which tend to be sites of explicit or implicit evaluation (Iedema, Feez and White 1994) • These can be potentially instrumental in the treatment of related issues/themes by individual broadcasters.

8. Linguistic 2 • the use of personal pronouns, for example, the newsworkers’ use of I indicating personal involvement; the use of us and we, they and them to reference shared knowledge and to construct ‘the other’; • and the use of you as evidence of the positioning of the viewer/audience with respect to the news being reported.

9. Linguistic 3 • the use of mental process verbs (e.g. think, know) and verbs of affect (e.g. care, hope) where the newsworker attributes ‘thoughts’ or ‘feelings’ to news subjects, thereby constructing an evaluation of a given situation. • Other relevant features in the expression of evaluation may include choices in modality, metaphor, deictic reference, and the selection of specific semantic fields and collocations.

10. Differentframes • From a linguistic perspective in each broadcasting channel, different frames may emerge in the conceptualisation of the topic, and in how they position themselves in relation to the issues

11. voices • in the realisation phases a difference between the realisations. • Presentation through voices of political and expert elites, • Or the voices of ordinary members of the public in vox sequences.

12. Discursive • At the discursive level, we focus on the organisation of the individual news items, basing our analysis partially on Hartley’s (1982) categories of news structure: the framing, focusing, realising and closing elements of a news report.

13. Framing and focusing • We treat the news presenters’ introduction as the opening frame, • the discursive development of the central segment – ‘focusing’ by the news reporter – is significant in terms of the choices made regarding how specific aspects and themes of the news presenters’ introduction are elaborated on.

14. Realising • the selection of visual material and voices • In addition to the news presenters and reporters, two other categories of ‘voice’: legitimated persons (LPs) who are the named expert and elite participants speaking as public figures, usually on behalf of an organisation or institution, • andvox– members of the general public who appear in news broadcasts speaking on their own behalf, and whose function is often to represent the views of the general public

15. Closing • the way the report ends, its closing segment • ‘closing’ is the dominant meaning produced by item as a whole, or what is ‘left behind in the viewer after the story is over [...] the closure of various possible interpretations of the event and the preferring of just one reading’ (Hartley1982:119). • more specifically, the concluding sequence of a report, its coda, or ‘wrap-up’, which may contribute to a ‘preferred reading’ of the whole report (Haarman, 2009).

16. Verbal and visual • the way verbal and visual texts are combined in the editing process, this synchrony is a prime meaning-bearing component of the television medium. • A sense of immediacy and reality is conveyed by the combination of images and sound, which ‘enhances the credibility of news reports’ (Graber 1988).

17. Images • images in television news clearly have a strong referential or descriptive function when in synchrony with the verbal text, commenting on, or illustrating it (Montgomery 2005, 2007) • images also play a major role in priming pre-existing interpretative schemas and stimulate viewers to relate the images to ‘similar information previously stored in memory’ (Graber 1990). • This would suggest that viewers are led to interpret new events in terms of familiar ones.

18. televisual context • do we see participants: • speaking to camera while making statements? • in an interview? • out of doors, or in a studio? • or other interior setting?

19. Verbal/visualfit • the analysis of the verbal/visual ‘fit’ may highlight previously unexplored aspects of how issues are framed. • the typology of visuals, e.g. particular use of archive material or stills, recorded or live footage (and live sound), graphics • any relevant features of the visual representation of participant ‘voices’

20. Comparingevidentiality in tv news

21. Markerswhich indicate • The kindofevidenceonehasformakingfactualclaims • The indicationof the nature of the evidencefor a given statement • Knowledgeof the source and committmentto the truthof a proposition

22. Choices • Attributionof a propositiontoanotherperson or voice is a kindofevidentiality – x says y • Witness – I wasthere, I saw y • Secondhand or hearsay – attributestootherwitnesses, the neighboursreportedhearing a • Sensory-I felt, itseemed, itlookedasif, itsoundedlike • Inferential , - clues and indications, visuals

23. Modality Useofsimplepresent or past: Useofpresentperfect: Useofmodals:

24. Visuals • Visuals can be live or archive (some archivefootageis a shorthandto illustrate institutional or social situations the viewerismeanttorecognise) • They can back up the verbal text basicallyshowingwhatisbeingsaid • they can juxtaposearchivefootage and they can addimpressionswithoutexplicitlymaking a point

25. Post production editing • The more a channeltakespainstoedit and compile, the more theyseemtobeevaluating the news asimportant (worthmaking the effort)

26. Voices • Some sources are given live camera footage or are interviewed on screen • Some are givenstillphotos • Some just theirwords on the screen • Some havetheirwordsparaphrased or summarisedby the NP • Youneedtothinkabout the effectsofsuchchoices

27. Interaction • Sometimeswehear the question and see the participantstogether • Sometimeswe just hear the answer • Answersusuallydepend on questions and the questions can beleadingquestions….

28. Practice • Nowanalyse the items on the UN and Syria in termsof • Framing and focussing: Linguisticfeaturesand in termsofverbal and visualfit • realising: voices and visuals • and closing.