DEFINITION OF A GROUP

1. DEFINITION OF A GROUP • TWO OR MORE PERSONS • FREQUENT INTERACTION • COMMON OBJECTIVES • SHARED NORMS • SHARED PERCEPTION OF MEMBERSHIP “Two or more persons who interact regularly to accomplish a common purpose or goal.” EFFECTIVE GROUPS • SATISFACTION & COMMITMENT FOR EACH MEMBER • ACCOMPLISH THE TASK (PRODUCTIVE OUTPUT) Homans Classification Scheme Activities, Interactions, Sentiments

2. WHY DO PEOPLE JOIN GROUPS? • JOB ASSIGNMENT (the job requires it) • ATTRACTED TO MEMBERS (you like the people) • ENJOY GROUP ACTIVITIES (the group does “fun” stuff) • BELIEVE IN GROUP GOALS (the “mission” of the group) • SATISFY THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (you’re lonely) • USE GROUP AS A MEANS TO SOME END (instrumental)

3. TYPES OF GROUPS FORMAL GROUPS (Work Assignments) TASK FORCE = temporary group; TEAM = permanent group MANAGEMENT TEAM (Vertical) COMMAND GROUP -- HIERARCHY FUNCTIONAL WORK TEAM (Horizontal) PRODUCT OR SERVICE – SELF-DIRECTED SPECIAL PURPOSE GROUPS (Problem-solving & Representation) TASK FORCE -- NEED EXPERTISE COMMITTEE -- NEED REPRESENTATION INFORMAL GROUPS (Join Voluntary) FRIENDSHIP (People) INTEREST (Activities)

4. GROUP PROPERTIES WHICH AFFECTEFFECTIVENESS • MEMBER COMPOSITION • SIZE • ROLES • COHESION • NORMS • STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

5. MEMBER COMPOSITION • Similarity (Homogeneity) Bonds Quickly Acts Quickly • Diversity (Heterogeneity) More Contentious (Less Cohesive) More Deliberate (slow) More Status Differences SIZE OF GROUP • Few Members More Interaction Everyone Participates • Many Members A “Leader” Emerges A “Silent” Minority

6. EMERGENT VERTICAL ROLES • LEADER • REGULAR MEMBER • DEVIATE • ISOLATE

7. EMERGENT HORIZONTAL ROLES TASK-ORIENTED ROLESRELATIONS-ORIENTED ROLES IDEA INITIATOR HARMONIZER / SMOOTHER INFORMATION SEEKER COMPROMISER INFORMATION PROVIDER STANDARD MONITOR PROBLEM CLARIFIER GATEKEEPER CONSENSUS TESTER SUPPORTER EVALUATOR HUMORIST SUMMARIZER “COOKIE PERSON” SELF-ORIENTED ROLES WET BLANKET / BLOCKER RECOGNITION SEEKER BRAGGER DOMINATOR GROUP CLOWN FIGHT PICKER

8. COHESIVENESS CAUSES MEMBER SIMILARITY (HOMOGENEITY) GROUP SIZE ISOLATION COMPETITION / EXTERNAL THREAT REWARD SYSTEM DEPENDENCE PATTERN INTERACTION AND PARTICIPATION ENTRANCE STANDARDS (EXCLUSIVITY) CONSEQUENCES MEMBER SATISFACTION PERFORMANCE SUBOPTIMIZATION FEELING OF “WE-NESS” RESISTANCE TO CHANGE RESPONSIBLE ACTIVITY

9. MANIPULATING COHESION TO INCREASE GROUP COHESION INCREASE MEMBER HOMOGENEITY (Similarity) INCREASE OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTERACTION AMONG MEMBERS DECREASE GROUP SIZE INTRODUCE COMPETITION WITH OTHER GROUPS ISOLATE FROM OTHER GROUPS ALLOCATE REWARDS TO THE GROUP CREATE MORE TASK COMPLEXITY & AMBIGUITY DECREASE GROUP COHESION INDUCE DISAGREEMENT OVER OBJECTIVES INCREASE MEMBER HETEROGENEITY (Diversity) RESTRICT INTERACTION AMONG MEMBERS INCREASE GROUP SIZE INTRODUCE A NEW DOMINATING MEMBER TO THE GROUP ALLOCATE REWARDS TO INDIVIDUALS WITHIN THE GROUP REMOVE ISOLATION BARRIERS TRANSFER MEMBERS (Break up the old gang)

10. NORMS • SUMMARIZE & SIMPLIFY GROUP EXPECTATIONS • APPLY ONLY TO OVERT BEHAVIOR • ONLY DEVELOP FOR “IMPORTANT” GROUP BEHAVIORS • DEVELOP GRADUALLY • DO NOT APPLY EQUALLY TO EVERYONE WITHIN THE GROUP REASONS NORMS FORM TO HELP THE GROUP SURVIVE TO INCREASE THE PREDICTABILITY OF GROUP MEMBER BEHAVIOR TO REDUCE EMBARRASSING INTERPERSONAL PROBLEMS FOR MEMBERS TO ENCOURAGE MEMBERS TO EXPRESS THE CENTRAL VALUES OF THE GROUP IN A PUBLIC WAY TO SEND A SIGNAL TO OUTSIDERS THAT “WE’RE A STRONG GROUP

11. TYPES OF NORMS PERFORMANCE NORMS HOW HARD MEMBERS SHOULD WORK HOW TO DO THE JOB EXPECTED LEVEL OF OUTPUT APPROPRIATE LEVELS OF TARDINESS APPEARANCE NORMS APPROPRIATE DRESS WHEN TOGETHER LOYALTY TO THE WORK GROUP WHEN TO LOOK BUSY WHEN IT’S OK TO GOOF OFF SOCIAL INTERACTION NORMS WHO CAN WE HANG OUT AND SOCIALIZE WITH ON-THE JOB? WHO CAN WE BE FRIENDS WITH, BOTH ON AND OFF THE JOB? REGULATES SOCIAL INTERACTIONS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE GROUP RESOURCE ALLOCATION NORMS WHO SHOULD BE ASSIGNED TO EACH JOB? WHO SHOULD BE THE NEXT TO RECEIVE NEW TOOLS OR EQUIPMENT? HOW MUCH OF A PAY INCREASE SHOULD EACH MEMBER GET? WHO SHOULD RECEIVE THE NEXT PROMOTION?

12. NORM STRENGTHJACKSON (65) INTENSITY AND CRYSTALLIZATION AFFECT NORM STRENGTH HIGH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - HIGH STRONG CONFLICT ENFORCED NORMS INTENSITY- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NORMLESS VACUOUS CONSENSUS LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LOW HIGH CRYSTALLIZATION INTENSITY = WIDE EMOPTIONAL SWINGS IN FEELING, PEOPLE GET UPSET WHEN NORM IS VIOLATED CRYSTALLIZATION = THERE IS STRONG AGREEMENT ABOUT WHAT IS & IS NOT APPROPRIATE

13. HOW COHESIVENESS AND PERFORMANCE NORMS INTERACT HIGH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - MODERATE HIGH PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NORMS LOW LOWEST PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE LOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LOW HIGH COHESIVENESS COHESIVENESS -- DO THE TEAM MEMBERS ENCOURAGE EACH OTHER TO WORK TOGETHER? PERFORMANCE NORMS -- DO THE TEAM MEMBERS ALL WANT TO PERFORM AT A HIGH LEVEL?

14. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT TRADITIONAL VIEW (No pressing time pressures) FORMING INTRODUCTIONS, ORIENTATION AND DISCOVERY STORMING CONFLICT, COMPETITION FOR ROLES, GOAL DISPUTES NORMING COHESION ESTABLISHED, PROCEDURES, NORMS FORM PERFORMING COOPERATION & PARTICIPATION, TASKS ACCOMPLISHED ADJOURNING GROUP CELEBRATES ITS SUCCESSES, THEN DISBANDS PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL (Deadlines imposed) INITIAL ARRANGEMENTS & ASSIGNMENTS MIDPOINT “REVOLUTION” (Panic Attack!) FOCUSED FINISH (Final burst of energy)

15. THREE VIEWS OF CONFLICT TRADITIONAL VIEW Conflict is dysfunctional, destructive and irrational Usually caused by poor communication, a lack of trust, or a failure to be responsible to the needs of others. STAMP IT OUT! “HUMAN RELATIONS” VIEW Conflict is natural in groups and organizations It may even be beneficial on occasion. Learn to live with it. TOLERATE IT! INTERACTIONIST VIEW Without conflict, we become static and non-responsive Conflict keeps us viable and creative, but there are two kinds of conflict: FUNCTIONAL and DYSFUNCTIONAL. Functional conflict improves long-term group performance. ENCOURAGE IT!

16. CONFLICT INTENSITY CONTINUUM • MINOR DISAGREEMENTS, MISUNDERSTANDINGS • OVERT QUESTIONING OR CHALLENGING OTHERS • ASSERTIVE VERBAL ATTACKS • THREATS AND ULTIMATUMS • AGGRESSIVE PHYSICAL ATTACKS • OVERT EFFORTS TO DESTROY THE OTHER PARTY AT WHAT POINT DOES THE CONFLICT BECOME DYSFUNCTIONAL? HOW DO WE “DEFUSE” DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT?

17. CONFLICT STIMULATION TECHNIQUES(SOME CONFLICT IS GOOD!) INCREASE COMPETITION AMONG INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS Contests and incentives based on performance…we know the rules! COMMUNICATE WITH LESS PRECISION Send ambiguous messages and give very general instructions which will be open to differing interpretations of what to do, etc. HIRE OR BRING IN OUTSIDERS Add people who differ regarding their backgrounds, values and attitudes (increase heterogeneity)…we need some new ideas! RESTRUCTURE THE ORGANIZATION…MAKE CHANGES Realign work groups, alter the rules, etc…shake the place up! ENCOURAGE DISSENT…APPOINT A DEVIL’S ADVOCATE Sensitize the members that it’s ok to disagree or raise concerns. Designate a critic to purposely argue against the majority position.

18. CONTROLLING CONFLICT(LEARNING HOW TO LIVE WITH CONFLICT) EXPAND THE RESOURCE BASE Can we find more resources so we don’t have to fight over them? Find ways to increase budgets, provide more space, etc. SET SUPERORDINATE GOALS Focus attention on higher-level objectives…the corporate goals that cannot be attained without cooperation. IMPROVE THE COORDINATION OF INTERDEPENDENCIES Develop better coordination and communication channels to bridge the gap between interdependent departments and groups. Consider liaison roles, task forces, and other integrating mechanisms. MATCH PERSONALITIES & WORK HABITS OF EMPLOYEES Don’t make incompatible personalities work together continuously. Consider a transfer for one or both of them to other units.

19. RESOLVING AND ELIMINATING CONFLICT(CONFLICT IS BAD…GET RID OF IT) AVOIDANCE OF CONFLICT If I ignore it…maybe it will die down and go away! Separate the parties involved…give them time to cool off. COMPROMISE If our goals are incompatible, we must bargain with each other to resolve the conflict. Each party gives something up to reach an agreement (a “lose-lose” situation). CONFRONT THE CONFLICT AND RESOLVE IT Sit down and discuss the issues face-to-face in a mature fashion. Search for a “win-win” solution, or agree on how the conflict will be resolved (superior decision, arbitration, alternative dispute resolution, etc).

20. CONFLICT RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES AVOIDANCE Withdraw from or suppress conflict SMOOTH OVER Play down differences, emphasize common interests COMPROMISE Each party gives something up AUTHORITATIVE COMMAND Top management mandates a solution ALTER STRUCTURAL VARIABLES Redesign jobs, reassign tasks and personnel TRAINING TO CHANGE ATTITUDES & BEHAVIORS Raising sensitivity, learning to negotiate, etc. PROBLEM-SOLVING MEETINGS Face-to-face discussions to find a “win-win” solution FOCUS ON SUPERORDINATE GOALS A corporate goal that cannot be attained without cooperation EXPAND SCARCE RESOURCES Find ways to increase budgets, provide more space, etc.

21. CONFLICT-HANDLING STYLES GRIDTHOMAS (76) ASSERTIVE --------------------------------------------------------- COMPETITIVE COLLABORATIVE SATISFY OWN CONCERNSCOMPROMISING AVOIDANT ACCOMMODATIVE UNASSERTIVE --------------------------------------------------------- UNCOOPERATIVE COOPERATIVE SATISFY THE CONCERNS OF OTHERS Is this a DISTRIBUTIVE (Zero-sum) game -- “How shall we split the pie?” Or, is this an INTEGRATIVE (Proactive) game -- “How to create a larger pie?”

22. THOMAS’ CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 1 AVOIDANT NON-ATTENTION PHYSICAL SEPARATION LIMIT INTERACTION Let people cool down and regain perspective Issue is trivial, more important issues are pressing Potential disruptions outweigh the benefits of resolution There is no chance for you to satisfy your concerns When others can resolve the conflict more effectively ACCOMMODATIVE APPEASEMENT – GIVE AN “OLIVE BRANCH” SMOOTH OVER DIFFERENCES “CAVE IN” When harmony and stability are quite important When the goals pursued are not critical to us To build social credits (idiosyncratic) for later issues When you find you were wrong, or to show you’re reasonable To satisfy others and maintain their cooperation

23. THOMAS’ CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 2 COMPETITIVE USE OF FORCE, POWER AUTHORITATIVE COMMANDS ALLIES, DOMINANT COALITIONS When the goals pursued are incompatible with others’ goals When important, yet unpopular actions must be taken On issues where there can be no compromise, and time is critical When we think we’re “in the right” Against those who have taken unfair advantage in the past COMPROMISING BARGAINING MEDIATION ARBITRATION When opponents with equal power have mutually exclusive goals To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues As a backup (“Plan B”) when competitive and collaborative attempts fail When goals are not worth the disruption of assertive approaches

24. THOMAS’ CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES - 3 COLLABORATIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING MEETINGS CONFRONTATION AND HONEST COMMUNICATION SEARCH FOR SUPERORDINATE GOALS EXPAND SCARCE RESOURCES When both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised When the goals of both parties differ, but are potentially compatible When interaction and cooperation are very important for goal attainment To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship

25. GROUND RULES FOR CONFRONTATION • Review and clarify the issues and facts • Begin with a positive overture • Communicate freely, don’t hold back grievances • Address problems, not personalities • Don’t attack things that are irrelevant • Keep focused on specifics – don’t argue aimlessly • Don’t use inflammatory rhetoric • Make sure all participants say all they want to say