A Definition of Learning

1. A Definition of Learning Learning is: An experiential process Resulting in a relatively permanent change Not explained by temporary states.

2. Behaviorism(Brief History) In the United States,Behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the early 20th century by John, B.Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike Edward ,Ivan Pavlov, and later B.F.Skinner

3. Basics concepts • Behavior is shaped by positive and negative reinforcement. • Behaviorism assumes that a learner is passive but responding it environmental stimulus.

4. Assumption of Behaviorism • Behaviorism is based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment.

5. Definition of Learning (According to Behaviorists) Behavior theorists define , “Learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. “

6. How Behaviorism impacts learning? • Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of Behaviorism can be very effective. • Teachers use Behaviorism when they give reward or punish student behaviors.

7. Positive and Negative Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement • Behavior leads to something pleasant • Negative reinforcement • Behavior is rewarded by the removal of something unpleasant • Negative reinforcement is not punishment • “Negative” means removing something • Remember that reinforcement increases behavior

8. Positive and Negative Punishment • Punishment is an unpleasant consequence that leads to a decrease in behavior • Positive punishment • Addition of something unpleasant that decreases behavior • Negative punishment • Removal of something pleasant that decreases behavior

9. Major Thinkers in Behaviorism • Ivan Pavlov • A Russian psychologist • A Nobel Prize winner • Founder of classical conditioning • Experiments on dogs

10. B.F.Skinner • A n American psychologist • Skinner in 1938 introduced Operant Conditioning • Differentiate between instrumental conditioning and operant conditioning. • Experiments on pigeons & rats • Focus of his theory on voluntary responses

11. Thorndike • An American psychologist • Studied observable behavior • Connectionism Theory of Learning (s+r) • Experiments on cats and chickens

12. John .B.Watson • An Americanpsychologist • First used the term behaviorism (1913) • In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views  •  In this article, Watson explained the major features of his new philosophy of psychology, called "behaviorism"

13. CONT………………………… • Experiments on human beings Example ;Watson kept a doll before a child ,he touched it and he was terrified by loudly voice then a rabbit was brought before him and again he was terrified after this he was terrified all those things which have resemblance with doll & rabbits. Then his terrified condition was removed gradually.

14. Little Albert

15. Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning may be defined as the formation of an association between a conditional stimulus and a response through the repeated presentation of the conditional stimulus in a controlled relationship with an unconditioned stimulus that originally elicits that response . (Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. )

18. Example.(Classical conditioning) • · Conditioning Stimulus · BELL ·  with ·  Food ---------------------> Salivation • · Unconditioned Stimulus ---> Unconditioned Response

19. Basic Terms of Classical conditioning • The Unconditioned Stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically occures a response. Example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. Bell +Food

20. Cont…………….. • The Unconditioned Response • The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response. Bell+Saliva

21. Cont………… • The Conditioned Stimulus • The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the noise of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

22. Cont…………… • The Conditioned Response • The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

23. Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell.

24. Cont…………………. • Extinction • Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

26. Cont……….. • Spontaneous Recovery • Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

27. Cont…………. • Stimulus Generalization • Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.

28. Cont……………… • Discrimination • Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

29. Connectionism (Edward Thorndike) • The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards.

30. Example • (1)The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). • (2) Opening the lock ,using the keys (S) and open the lock or door (R)

31. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

32. Learning Curve for Cats in Box

33. Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws • 1) law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, • (2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, • (3) law of exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued

34. Principles of Instrumental Conditioning • Stimulus Should be Effective. • There Should be Reinforcement. • There Should be Hurdles or Problems.

35. Skinner’s Operant conditioning • Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength. Operant conditioning is a term that was taken by B.F Skinner in 1937. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or respondent conditioning). Key point • A man learns from the results of his actions

36. Cont……………….. Operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future

37. Example (operant conditioning) Learning based upon the consequences of behavior. For example, a rat may learn to press a lever when this action produces food.

39. core tools of operant conditioning, • Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. • Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.

40. Cont…………… • Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever.

41. Schedules of Reinforcement • Timing and consistency of the reinforcement affects rate at which behavior is acquired or extinguished • Continuous reinforcement – behavior is rewarded each time exhibited • Simplest • Not always feasible • More vulnerable to extinction • Partial reinforcement – reward behavior only some of the time • Ratio and interval

43. Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed ratio schedule • Set number of responses emitted before reward given • Slower extinction, high rates of responding • Variable ratio schedule • Exact number of responses needed to receive reward; vary around an average • Even slower rates of extinction, high rates of responding

45. Summary • Continuous reinforcement leads to high rates of responding but the quickest extinction • Ratio schedules lead to higher rates of responding than do interval schedules • Variable schedules lead to behaviors that are most resistant to extinction

46. The High Risks of Punishment • Punishment does not teach the correct/desired behavior • Harsh punishment teaches aggression • Harsh punishment often ineffective at producing behavior changes • Harsh punishment leads to negative emotional reactions like anger, fear, and anxiety • Physical punishment should be avoided

47. Making Punishment More Effective • Tell child about appropriate behavior, then reinforce it • Minimize situations that tempt bad behavior • Use punisher that’s aversive • Punishment must occur right after behavior • Punishment must occur every time behavior occurs • Remain calm while punishing

48. THANKS ?