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Developmental Tasks. Associated with Toddlerhood. Age range (18-36 months) Differentiation of self and object representations Integration of affectively distinct object representations ( object constancy) Increased sense of autonomy Anxiety over regression to symbiotic state
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Developmental Tasks Associated with Toddlerhood
Age range (18-36 months) • Differentiation of self and object representations • Integration of affectively distinct object representations ( object constancy) • Increased sense of autonomy • Anxiety over regression to symbiotic state • Beginning internalization of parental demands (superego formation) • Increased exploration of environment (↑locomotion) • Goal-corrected partnership (Bowlby)
Mahler’s Theory of Separation-Individuation 4 Subphases (overlapping with oral and anal stages)
Differentiation (“hatching”) and the development of body image (4-10 months) • Practicing (9-15 months) • Rapprochement (15-24 months) • Consolidation of individuation and beginnings of emotional object constancy (20-36 months)
Consolidation of Individuation/Emotional Object Constancy Subphase
Internalization of constant, positively cathected, inner image of mother • Object permanence often precedes object constancy (A-B paradigm) • Stable self boundaries are attained • Unification of good and bad object into whole representation that is final achievement in development of mature object relationship ( influence of Klein) • Toddler able to use reliable internal image in mother’s physical absence—temporary separations lengthened and better tolerated • Mahler’s advances in communication (goal-corrected partnership)
Three examples • First girl could tolerate separation from mother even though she did not know where she was (secure attachment, p.113) • Boy held conflictual, ambiguous inner image of mother, wanting to avoid her (avoidant attachment, p.113) • Second girl could not tolerate even brief separation from mother (resistant attachment, p. 114) • Reunion behaviors of all three toddlers also predicted by attachment theory (p.114)
Need to believe in mother’s omnipotence (wish fulfillment and need gratification) • Need to protect oneself against reengulfment (regression to symbiotic phase) and be separate and omnipotent) • Integration of disparate representations diminishes ambivalence
Normality and deviance not clearly established—ambivalent behaviors considered normal by Mahler during rapprochement are considered deviant by attachment researchers • Attachment research suggests that ambivalence represents infants’ exaggerated attempt to attain feelings of security • Idea of psychopathology as fixation or arrested development is challenged • Different assumptions—individuation vs. attachment security
Decreased separation distress at separation healthy self-assertion? • Secure toddlers more distressed than avoidant toddlers • Secure toddlers have more desirable outcomes • Persistence • Compliance • Peer competence • Autonomous problem-solving • Affective sharing • Requests for assistance
Lyons-Ruth calls for need to understand early interpersonal interactions as well as intrapsychic conflicts and defenses related to aggression and libido • For Mahler lack of separation distress signifies increased differentiation and integration of maternal object representation • For Lyons-Ruth lack of separation distress signifies defense against anxiety aroused by physical absence of mother • Perhaps “normal” ambivalence associated with split representations occurs earlier (e.g., 8-12 months; see Rogers et al., 1993)
Developmental Outcomes of High-Risk Toddlers (Bernstein & Hans)
Drug exposure will have negative impact on these developmental outcomes • Cumulative social-environmental risks will have greater negative impact than drug exposure per se on outcomes • Poor maternal communication will interact with drug-exposure status (biological vulnerability) to produce poorest outcomes
Methodology • 28 methadone-exposed toddlers and a matched comparison group of 43 toddlers followed longitudinally from pregnancy to 24 months • Mothers administered instruments assessing the following (assessing cumulative risk) • WAIS Full-Scale IQ • Years of Education • SES • Severity of psychological stressors • Level of adaptive functioning • Quality of maternal communication (4,12,24 months) • Infants administered instruments assessing the following:
Bayley Scales of Infant Development—IBR (Infant Behavior Record) • Attention • Social resiliency • MDI (Mental Development Index) • Quality of infant communication (24 months) • Gender • Findings • No significant differences in outcome between drug-exposed and comparison toddlers • Stress, adaptive functioning, 24-month maternal communication, cumulative risk differed significantly for two groups • Cumulative risk significantly predicted MDI, attention, social resiliency, child communication in methadone group alone
Cumulative risk significantly predicted only child communication in comparison group alone • Maternal communication at 24 months significantly predicted child communication at 24 months. In both groups—no interaction effect • But interaction effect between drug-exposure status and maternal communication at 4 and 12 months on MDI, attention, and social resiliency assessed at 24 months (evidence for critical period of maternal communication and drug-exposure interaction effects?)
Limitations • Structure of daily routines not assessed • Communication in home settings not assessed • Relationships with nonmaternal figures not assessed • Level of biological effects of exposure or amount of exposure not assessed