Today’s Topics

1. Today’s Topics Facts and Values in the Western Tradition Distinctions Concerning Facts and Values The Nature of Valuing Can Nature Have Intrinsic Value?

2. The Importance of Values • Values shape behavior • Religious values are among the most important values we have • We forget how deep and significant our religious values are re the environment

3. Western Religious Values and the Environment • Genesis 1:28 • Nature is an enemy, a thing to to be conquered and tamed • Nature is a resource that has instrumental, but not intrinsic, value • Inconsistent religious values

5. Moncrief’s Response • White misses some key ideas • Capitalism and Property Rights • Democratization • Urbanization, Wealth, Population Increases

6. Compare • Christianity + Science and Technology = Crisis • Christianity + Capitalism and Democratization + Urbanization, Wealth, Population Increases = Crisis • Capitalism and Democratization + Urbanization, Wealth, Population Increases = Crisis

7. St. Francis and Stewardship • St. Francis and the tradition of stewardship provides an alternative • The earth is a gift and we are stewards of that gift (1 Pet. 4:10-11) • The obligations of those in whom great trust is placed (Luke 12:48) • Noblesse Oblige

8. Facts and Values in the Western Tradition • The Fact/Value distinction • Facts: objective, material, reliable, intersubjectively testable • Values: subjective, mental, unreliable, not intersubjectively testable • Product of a Cartesian hangover, the last remnant of mind/body dualism

9. Challenges to the Fact/Value Distinction • 20th century physics challenges the idea of an independent, objective physical reality • Length, Mass, Time and Motion are relative • “Values” are understood as facts about people • “Facts” reflect certain values

10. Distinctions re: Facts and Values • Intrinsic/Extrinsic • Subjective/Objective • These distinctions come under suspicion

11. The Nature of Valuing • Valuing is a property (a predicate), but what kind of predicate is it? • Predicates are either monadic (simple properties) or relational (they place 2 or more things in a relation, e.g. a valuer and the thing valued) • The Western view treats value as a relational predicate AND the valuer must be human.

12. Axiology (Theory of Value) identifies those things which have value or those properties which, when present in things, give things value

13. Is it the case that for a thing to have value it must be valued? • Must it be valuable (I.e., something might, but need not, actually value it)?

14. Three Theories of Value: • Objective monadic theory (OM) • Object/object dyadic theory (O/O D) • Subject/object dyadic theory (S/O D)

15. Objective monadic theory (OM) • “Value” is an objective quality to be discovered in things • Value exists whether or not there is a valuer • This is Aldo Leopold’s view

16. Object/object dyadic theory (O/O D) • The value relation is dyadic—value requires a valuer—but the valuer need not be sentient • No value without a valuer • This is Rolston’s view

17. Subject/object dyadic theory (S/O D) • Value is a dyadic relation AND the valuer must at least be sentient. • No valuing without a conscious valuer • This is Partridge’s view

18. Analytical Exercise • Does the view that valuing requires a sentient valuer entail anthropocentrism? Be sure to define your terms. • Which view of value, the property (O/D) or the relational )either O/O D or S/O D), do you prefer? Why? Be sure to define your terms.

19. Reverence for Life • Albert Schweitzer • “A system of values which concerns itself only with our relationship to other people is incomplete.” • Fundamental principle of morality: “It is good to maintain and cherish life; it is evil to destroy and to check life.” • A religious/Christian view of the environment

20. Biotic Egalitarianism: Respect for Nature • Contrast with anthropocentrism • Biotic Egalitarianism—humans have moral obligations to wild plants and animals simply because they are members of the Earth’s biotic community. • All member’s of a biotic community are ends-in-themselves.

21. Core Components Biotic Egalitarianism • Every organism has a good of its own • Natural objects have inherent (intrinsic) worth • Principle of moral consideration—every entity with a good of its own has moral standing • Principle of intrinsic value—the well-being of each member of the moral (biotic) community is an end in itself; members of the biotic community are not to be used merely as means

22. Four Principles of Biocentrism • Humans are members of the biotic community AND moral agents • Natural ecosystems are complex, interconnected webs in which the good of each element is dependent of the good of the others. • Each member is an end in itself • Claims of human superiority or superior worth are not justifiable in light of 1, 2, and 3

23. Moral Consideration • “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community.” A. Leopold • Does not allow for anthropocentrism • Does not allow egalitarianism

24. Moral Demarcation • What is the proper scope of the moral community? Where do we draw the line of moral patients? • Traditional answers don’t work. • Rational agency • Homo Sapiens membership • Ability to suffer or feel pain • Possession of rights • The only answer that works is “Life.”

25. Moral Agents and Moral Patients • Agents have moral responsibilities (duties) and are owed duties from other agents • Patients are owed duties by all moral agents but do not necessarily have duties themselves (e.g. they may be incapable of acting or of rationally controlling their actions).

26. Thinking Critically and Philosophically • Challenge and Response • Formulate reasonable objections to YOUR view and address them

27. The Land Ethic • Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac. • Other important nature writers: Wallace Stegner, Rachel Carson, Barbara McClintock