Media in intergroup relations

1. Media in intergroup relations Implications of/for the media

2. Categorization • Though rarely discussed, the first and necessary step in the development of group evaluations (including prejudice) is the definition/social construction of a group/category of people • All categories are in some sense constructed • Basis for category may be biological, ideological/cultural, personality-related • Membership may be assigned or chosen

3. Categorization • No categories, even the most “obvious” are absolutely valid. Some degree of social construction always exists. • Sex (gender) • Race • Class • Religion • Occupation • Nationality

4. Categorization • The more distant from a biological basis group membership becomes, the more “constructed” one might say they are • “Ideological work” must be done to make categories “real”--that is, to give them meaning • Regardless of their original basis, categories take on “excess meaning” through the processes of formation and application

5. Excess meaning • Categories take on meaning beyond the original characteristics and/or reasons for their formation • In-group bias • Formation of the “other” • Function/power value of representations • Cultural heritage

6. Excess meaning • Groups are assigned characteristics that go beyond those in original definition • Powerholder advantage in “naming” • Universalizing of individual characteristics of those in direct contact with majority, etc. • Group actions interpreted • “Psychologizing” interpretations • Group conflict • Assignment of blame to groups

7. A hierarchy of categories • Categories are assigned a position relative to each other • Relative importance (salience) • situational salience • social/historical salience • Relations among categories • “cross pressures” • mutual reinforcement

8. Note: assigned characteristics may be false • Groups may be perceived in a false light • Misinterpretation of behavior, actions • Majority, power groups need for explanation that jibes with social action either by ingroup or outgroup • Widespread distribution of biased depictions • economic logic of media representations • Slight group tendencies magnified by categorization process • Blaming the victim

9. Assignment of group characteristics to individuals • Group characteristics are assumed to be inherent in “typical” group members • “Stereotyping” • The belief that individuals in a category will reflect characteristics assigned to the group • Overprediction from statistical tendencies • Tversky and Kahneman • “Resonance” a la Gerbner • “Function” of individual-level explanations

10. Attribution • Assigned “group” characteristics and consequent assumptions about individual “group” “members” serve as “explanations” for social events and actions • “Psychologizing” tendency in the U.S. • “Fundamental attribution error”

11. Categories have social impact • Subject is called upon to locate herself as either a member or nonmember • Processes of bias in information processing and in behavior seem to be nearly automatic • Theorists have tended to assume anti-outgroup, but pro-ingroup may be more valid • Original actions may lead to spiraling effects • Sherif

12. Media theory and “others” • Political economy • A. Power groups control means of societal communication, manipulate content in favor of prejudice, etc. in ways that help to maintain their position. Active opposition to marginal voice access.

13. Political economy • B. Working of the market favors portrayals that cater to popular prejudices. Marginalized groups cannot develop economically viable media. Those with money will not invest, those out of the mainstream will not economically support ventures (advertising).

14. Critical cultural study • The definition of the “other” serves to justify the distribution of power and wealth, reassure majority and adjust minority groups to their fate. Political/social discussion takes place within presupposed “truths” of which categories are one significant part. “Otherness” allows majority to explain inequality, ignore legitimate demands and blame victims for their own victimization.

15. Mainstream, liberal pluralist research • Media depictions have varied impact on prejudice, with effects both supporting and opposing stereotyping. • Prime-time depictions reflect rather than drive overall cultural forces • Media portrayals range from negative stereotypical to liberatory depictions • Critique of white racism • Invisibility

16. Positive effects of media • Diffusion of information on race/sex, etc. topics • Pressure on government to address discrimination, etc. • Media campaigns against racism

17. Positive effects of media • Production and dissemination of content opposing racism • Exposure of hate crimes, etc. • Depiction of groups in non- or counter-stereotypical ways • Preservation of subcultures • Development of community among group members • In-group solidarity

18. Negative effects of media • Stereotypic characterizations • Many content analyses have identified sexist, racist, etc. depictions • Generation of a culture of prejudice • Viewer acceptance of images • Reduced concern over plight of minorities • Depiction of “causes” of group troubles • “Explains” poverty, health and crime problems, lower status jobs, etc.

19. Potential unintended effects • Acts to legitimate categories, maintain and disseminate meaning attached to them • Introduce categories, associated meaning to cultures, societies where they do not currently exist • Influences self-conception • Imposition of positive/negative evaluations • Choice of affiliations according to social evaluation of groups

20. Potential unintended effects • Depiction of inherent, basic, unending conflict between categories • In-group bias lead to discrimination without prejudice? • “Boomerang” effect of providing support to racist/sexist ideas as content is “selectively” attended to, interpreted, etc. • All in the Family

21. Questions of categorization and media • Do media depictions lead, follow, both or neither • nature of depictions • What impact do media have in group interactions cognitive and behavioral? • Is media fare “read into” a set of socially structured interpretations based on categorization?

22. Minorities on television

23. Blacks in cop shows: % Officers

24. Blacks in cop shows: % Offenders

25. Latinos/Hispanic characters • Tremendously underrepresented (2%) • Ramirez Berg outlined 6 stereotypes: • Mexican bandit • Harlot • Male buffoon • Clown (female counterpart of male buffoon) • Latin lover • Dark lady (mysterious and alluring but aloof)