BABCOCK UNIVERSITY COURSE CODE: MLSM 511 TITLE: BIOTERRORISM, BIODEGRADATION AND BIOREMEDIATION

1. BABCOCK UNIVERSITY • COURSE CODE: MLSM 511 • TITLE: BIOTERRORISM, BIODEGRADATION AND BIOREMEDIATION

2. Terrorism is the "unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives’. • Bioterrorism refers to the intentional use or release of biological agents (bacteria, viruses or other microbes) for terrorist attack. It is also known as germ warfare.

3. Besides biological agents, terrorists can also utilize traditional weapons (guns), chemical agents and nuclear bombs. • Bioterrorism differs from other methods of terrorism in that the effects are not always immediately apparent. • An attack may be difficult to distinguish from a naturally occurring infectious disease outbreak.

4. CAUSES/MICROBIAL AGENTS OF BIOTERRORISM • A bioterrorist attack could be caused by virtually any pathogenic microorganism. • The agents of greatest concern are anthrax (a bacterium) and smallpox (a virus). Both can be lethal. • Anthrax is not communicable while smallpox is readily transmitted from person to person.

5. There are three forms of anthrax: inhalational, cutaneous and intestinal. • Symptoms generally occur within 7 days of the exposure. Can be very fatal. • Symptoms of small pox include high fever, fatigue, and head and back pain. A characteristic rash follows in 2 to 3 days. • A number of bacteria and bacterial toxins could potentially be used to infect the food supply.

6. These include Clostridium botulinum toxin, Clostridium perfringens toxin, Salmonella species, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella, and Staphylococcal enterotoxin B. • The one that is most dangerous and most likely to be used in bioterrorism is Clostridium botulinum toxin, which causes botulism.

7. COMMON AGENTS OF BIOTERRORISM • Biological agent Disease • Bacillus anthracis Anthrax • Cl. Botulinum toxin Botulism • Yersinia pestis Plague • Variola major Smallpox • Filoviruses (e.g. Ebola) Haemorrhagic fever • Arena virus (e.g. Lassa) - ditto- • Brucella species Brucellosis • Clostridium perfringens toxin Food poisoning (FP)

8. Burkholderia mallei Glanders • Staphylococcal enterotoxin B FP • Vibrio choleraeCholera • SIGNS OF BIOTERRORIST ATTACK • Citizens should constantly be vigilant for bioterrorism.

9. Suggestive events of an attack can include a • A large number of people falling ill or are dying in a small geographical area, • Multiple death of animals of different species in the geographycal area and • Patients with multiple different diseases that may indicate a mixed attack.

10. BIODEGRADATION • Definition: Biodegradation is the disintegration of materials by bacteria, fungi, or other biological means. • Biodegradable therefore simply means to be destroyed or consumed by microorganisms. • The term is often used in relation to ecology, waste management, biomedicine, and the natural environment (bioremediation).

11. The term is now commonly associated with environmentally friendly products that are capable of decomposing back into natural elements. • Biodegradable mater is most often an organic mater that serves as a nutrient for microorganisms. • Biodegradation can be done aerobically or anaerobically.

12. A wide range of compounds is biodegraded by the numerous diverse organisms. • Biodegradable compounds include hydrocarbons, plastics etc. • Decomposition of biodegradable substances may include both biological and abiotic steps. • Rate of degradation • All chemical materials are biodegradable.

13. An important aspect of biodegradation is the rate at which degradation occurs. • Factors that influence the rate of degradation include light, water and oxygen. • Temperature is also important since chemical reactions occur faster at higher temperatures. • Compounds must be released into solution before organisms can degrade them.

14. Respirometry tests can be used to measure the biodegradability of aerobic organisms: - First, a sample of solid waste is placed In a container with microorganisms and soil. - The mixture is aerated. - Over a period of several days, the sample is digested bit by bit by the microorganisms. - Carbon dioxide is produced – the amount of CO2 produced serves as an indicator of degradation.

15. . Biodegradability can also be measured by anaerobic microbes and the amount of methane or alloy that they are able to produce. • The process is termed bio-remediation. • BIOREMEDIATION • Bioremediation is a process of waste management in which microorganisms are used to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site

16. According to the US EPA, bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances”. • bioremediation - the branch of biotechnology that uses biological process to overcome environmental problems. • bioremediation - the act of treating waste or pollutants by the use of microorganisms (as bacteria) that can break down the undesirable substances.

17. It should be noted however that not all pollutants are easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. E.g. heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or by microorganisms. • Some damaged artefacts at museums contain microbes which could be specified as bio remediating agents. • The aromatic hydrocarbons such as it is in petroleum, are relatively simple targets for microbial degradation, and some soils may even have some capacity to auto-remediate.

18. Micro remediation of some soils may even have some capacity to auto-remediate • The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment requires increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory agencies to protect environments. • Bioremediation technologies • Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.

19. Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are: • Genetic engineering approaches • Genetic engineering to create organisms specifically designed for bioremediation is an effective method. • The very radio-resistant organism, Deinococcus radiodurans has been modified to consume and digest toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste.

20. Mycoremediation • This is a form of bioremediation in which fungal organisms are used to decontaminate the area. • The term involves specifically the use of fungal mycelia in bioremediation. • The mycelium secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose which are organic compounds consisting of long chains of carbon and hydrogen.

21. These are structurally similar to many organic pollutants. • The challenge of myco-remediation is determining the right fungal species to target a specific pollutant. • Certain strains have been reported to successfully degrade the nerve gases VX and sarin.

22. Wood-degrading fungi are particularly effective in breaking down aromatic pollutants (toxic components of petroleum), as well as chlorinated compounds (certain persistent pesticide). • Microorganisms used to perform the function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators. • Contaminants of heavy metals such as lead, are not easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.