Learn to Write

1. Learn to Write Chapter II: The Paragraph Lecture two: paragraph development

2. Ways of developing paragraphs • Development by exemplification • Development by comparison and contrast • Development by cause and effect • Development by time and process

3. development by exemplification: Vitamins and minerals can be added to enrich ( replace nutrients lost in processing ) or fortify ( add nutrients not normally present ) foods to improve their nutritional quality. Breads and cereals are usually enriched with some B vitamins and iron. Common examples of fortification include the addition of vitamin D to milk, vitamin A to margarine（人工黄油），vitamin C to fruit drinks, calcium to orange juice, and iodide（碘化物）to table salt.

4. Development by generalization: Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the maker’s symbol on the back; whether you put your coat on before or after you leave the host’s house; whether you eat as quietly or as noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a meal; whether you walk in front of or behind a seated person; whether it is

5. Development by generalization: a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with whom you are talking – these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so.

6. development by exemplification: Transitional words: • for example, for instance, for another example; • one example is…, another example is… • also, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, etc.

7. Class work: Develop the following topic sentence into a paragraph, by using exemplification. There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. ____________

8. Sample There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. First, no matter how busy we are, we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. Second, it is important to keep good hours. For example, if we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up early, we can avoid overworking ourselves and get enough sleep. Finally, entertainment is also necessary so that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructions, we will certainly be in good health.

9. Development by comparison and contrast • 1）先描述甲方，再描述乙方，即：A1,A2,A3,…. B1,B2,B3…. • 2) 两方同时描述，逐点比较,即：A1,B1;A2,B2;A3,B3,….

10. Development by comparison: Jane and Karen have many things in common. To begin with,both girls have the same background. Jane was born and raised in the west, and so was Karen. Next, both girls are interested in the same kinds of subjects in school. Jane likes French, history, and English. In the same way, Karen likes Spanish, history, and English. Furthermore, both girls want to be teachers. Jane plans to become an elementary school teacher. But Karen wants to be a high school teacher. As you can see, the two girls are almost like twins.

11. Development by comparison: Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, had a great deal in common. Grant descended from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution. He received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the Spanish – American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the

12. Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy. Lee also descended from a family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish – American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it is not always pointed out by historians, he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was

13. compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty.

14. Comparison Like, similarly, in the same way, in the same manner Compared with Be the same as Be similar to Contrast Unlike，In contrast to On the one hand, on the other hand on the contrary，however, nevertheless, whereas, while But, yet, although, even though, Be different from, differ from Transitional words used

15. Class work: Develop the following topic sentence into a coherent paragraph. Compared with cars, bicycles have manyadvantages.First, ____________________. Secondly,________. Thirdly, __________.

16. Sample • Compared with cars, bicycles have manyadvantages.First, they are not so expensive as cars and almost every family can afford them. Secondly, though they run more slowly than cars, bicycles are very handy and convenient. Unlike cars, bicycles can carry you wherever you like it to and does not need a large parking space in the crowded downtown or a garage at home. Thirdly, bicycles do not cause pollution but cars do. They do good to your hearth, too.

17. Development by cause and effect My decision to live in an apartment during my first year of college had several negative effects. First, I lived with three girls from my country, so I didn’t improve my English because I spoke Malay(马来语) most of the time. Moreover, we took exactly the same classes, so I didn’t have a chance to meet or study with my other classmates. Instead, I tended to spend more time studying with my roommates. Furthermore, since I didn’t have many American friends, I did not learn very much about American culture;

18. Development by cause and effect I did not celebrate Halloween or Thanksgiving or Christmas. Finally, I did not share experience with people. I did not attend parties or go skiing or even spend leisure time in the Student Center. So although my life during my first year of college was secure and pleasant, if I could change one thing about my first year in college, I would choose to live in the dormitory; I think my life would have been more interesting and fun.

19. Development by cause and effect What explains the growing trend toward delayed childbearing? , the high divorce rate is making newlyweds think twice about starting a family right away. , many young couples want to be more financially secure before having children. , more married women prefer to devote time to their careers before having a baby. For one thing Furthermore Above all

20. Development by cause and effect Compare composition A and composition B to see which one is better developed.

21. Composition A: When gas prices rise, most other items will increase in price, too. Some people may think, “How can that be? I don’t drive, and I don’t buy gasoline. How can a price rise in gasoline affect me?” In fact, gasoline must be taken from the ground and then sent around the world. Large ships carry this gasoline. They sometimes have oil spills, which occur when there is a problem on the ship. Then

22. Composition A: the great amount of oil in the ship spills into the ocean, causing very polluted water and death to sea animals sometimes for very long periods of time. The oil prevents fish from breathing and sea birds from flying, so they die. The oceans and beaches must be cleaned up, and that costs a lot of money. We must stop these oil spills, or our oceans will become ever more polluted, and the price of gasoline will continue to increase.

23. Composition B: When gas prices rise, most other items will increase in price, too. Some people who do not drive drive think, “What do I care if gas prices rise? I don’t drive. Those price hikes won’t affect me!” How wrong they are! Nearly everything depends on energy. One main source of energy is gasoline, used to produce electricity. Thus, whenever you turn on a light, machine, or an appliance, you are using gas. Gasoline is also used to make many plastics and chemicals.

24. Composition B: Many of our everyday items are made from these materials; accordingly, when the price of gasoline is increased, manufacturers must also raise their prices. Of course, gasoline is also the main source of fuel for transportation, which most people use every day. As a result, we must all pay more for our commuting. Indeed, the single biggest factor in increased prices in our consumer society is gasoline.

25. hence thus as a result accordingly as a consequence Transitional words: John stayed up late last night; therefore, he could not concentrate while taking his test this morning.

26. Due to Owing to As a result of As a consequence of Transitional words: Because of the rain, the picnic has been cancelled.

27. Development by time and process Yesterday was one of the worst days of my life. I forgot to set my alarm clock so I was late for school. In the rush to leave my home, I forgot an important paper on my desk, too. My teacher was very upset with me over that. My pen ran out of ink in English class, and when I tried to borrow a pen from one of my classmates, my teacher yelled at me for disturbing others. As if all that was not bad enough, a big, mean dog chased me home after got off the bus. Maybe I should have just stayed in bed!

28. Avoid using “they should”, “we must”, “let us”: 1. Therefore, we should waste no electricity. We must remember without electricity, there would be no power, no energy, no human activities, no society, no humans! 2. You see, trees are so important that we can’t leave trees in our life…let’s plant more trees. Let’s grow flowers. Let’s make cities greener. Let’s make our surrounding more beautiful.

29. Avoid only using principles: Taking part in sports can also help improve study efficiency. It can give you a rest after a day’s hard work. It can make you relax when you feel tired and broken – down. It can make you concentrate your study and work more. So if you take part in sports regularly, your study efficiency will surely improved.

30. Using daily examples in argument: Taking part in sports can also improve study efficiency. For example, whenever I feel a little tired from studies, I will have a 15 – minute walk on campus. After a brief walk I always feel entirely refreshed and relaxed. I can continue to study and memorize things better. My personal experience shows that half an hour’s exercise after a supper will help you maintain concentration for a whole night.

31. Using authority and data in argument: Taking part in sports ca also improve study efficiency. One study shows that people who take regular exercise suffer less from anxiety and are able to work harder. According to medical report, 83 percent of the freshmen who had trouble with studies were in bad physical shape. And when they were put into a physical fitness program, their grades picked up more or less.