Interest Groups

1. Government in America: People, Politics, and Policy Edwards/Wattenberg/Lineberry – Ch 11 Keeping the Republic Barbour & Wright – Ch 13 Living Democracy Shea/Green/Smith – Ch 13 Interest Groups

2. The Role of Interest Groups • Interest group: an organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals • Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas. • Interest groups distinguishable from parties. • Political parties fight election battles; interest groups do not field candidates for office but may choose sides. • Interest groups are policy specialists; political parties are policy generalists.

3. Groups in America • Alexis de Tocqueville • Amazed how Americans joined various groups from social to religious to political; a “nation of joiners” • Compared to Europeans, Americans much stronger tendency to join together to solve problems, to articulate collective interests and to form social and political relationships • People living in democratic nations must join together to preserve their independence and freedoms • “The liberty of association has become a necessary guarantee against the tyranny of the majority. …The most natural privilege of man, next to the right of acting for himself, is that of combining his exertions with those of his fellow-creatures, and of acting in common with them. I am therefore led to conclude that the right of association is almost as inalienable as the right of personal liberty.”

4. Robert Putnam • “Bowling Alone” – membership in traditional organizations from the PTA, bowling leagues, fraternities, etc decreased significantly; • many Americans don’t even know the names of their neighbors • Computer technology creating a society of loners • Critics argue increase in # involved in grassroots local issues and youth sports clubs, reading clubs, bunko groups, crime patrols, advocacy groups, etc

5. Interest groups: Compare • Faction: a group of citizens united by some common passion or interest and opposed to the rights of other citizens or to the interests of the whole community • Interest group: an organization of individuals who share a common political goal and are united for the purpose of influencing government decisions • Political action committee (PAC): the fundraising arm of an interest group

6. Roles of interest groups • Represent specific public interests – govt allocates more attention to large groups than to individuals • Lobbying: interest group activities aimed at persuading policymakers to support the group’s positions • Provide a means of political participation • Educate the public – thru research, congressional testimonies and public relations • Agenda building - creates awareness of issues • Provision of program alternatives • Program monitoring – assesses effectiveness of programs BEWARE: ALWAYS BIASED!

7. Key difference with party Interest groups seek to influence, not elect

8. Why number of IGs grown so rapidly since the 1960s? 1) Cleavages – divisions of people based on at least one social characteristic, such as educational attainment or race IG strive to gather supporters across social cleavages, serving as a unifying factor in a fragmented society 2) Federal system – for IGs, dif access points or additional opportunities to petition govt 3) David Truman’s “disturbance theory” theory that groups form whenever other interests are perceived as threatening or whenever the status quo is disturbed As society becomes more complex, divisions emerge, which then become the basis for new groups

9. Proliferation of IGs (cont.) 4) Growth of govt itself – IGs form as people try to gain a “piece of the action” or attempt to influence how govt allocates resources in exercising its new responsibilities 5) Americans are better educated and have more disposable income making them more likely to join IGs; technology makes it easier to target and to contact potential members

10. Theories of Interest Group Politics • Pluralist Theory • Politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies. • Elite Theory • Societies are divided along class lines and an upper-class elite rules, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization. • Hyperpluralist Theory • Groups are so strong that government is weakened. This is an extreme, exaggerated form of pluralism.

11. Theories of Interest Group Politics • Pluralism and Group Theory • Groups provide a key link between the people and the government. • Groups compete and no one group will become too dominant. • Groups play by the “rules of the game.” • Groups weak in one resource may use another. • Lobbying is open to all so is not problematical.

12. Theories of Interest Group Politics • Elites and the Denial of Pluralism • Real power is held by the relatively few. • The largest corporations hold the most power. • Elite power is fortified by a system of interlocking directorates of these corporations and other institutions. • Other groups may win many minor policy battles, but elites prevail when it comes to big policy decisions. • Lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at the expense of the many.

13. Theories of Interest Group Politics - Elitism

14. Theories of Interest Group Politics • Hyperpluralism and Interest Group Liberalism • Subgovernments consist of a network of groups that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas. • Also known as iron triangles • Consist of interest groups, government agency, and congressional committees that handle particular policies • The hyperpluralist critique • Groups have become too powerful as the government tries to appease every interest. • Many subgovernments (iron triangles & issue networks) aggravate the process. • Trying to please every group results in contradictory policies and policy gridlock.

15. Formulation of interest groups • Common problem or threat • Resource advantages • Can pool together to stretch resources further • Effective leadership • Interest group entrepreneurs • E.g., MADD, 9/11 Widows

16. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? Top 25 most POWERFUL lobbying groups in 2001

17. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? • The Surprising Ineffectiveness of Large Groups • Potential group: all the people who might be interest group members because they share a common interest • Actual group: the part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join • Collective good: a good or service, thaqt by its very nature, cannot be denied to anyone who wants to consume it; ex. Public safety, clean air, natl defense

18. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? • Free-Rider problem: Some people don’t join interest groups because they benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining. • Bigger the group, larger the problem • Large groups are difficult to organize • Olson’s law of large groups: • “The larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good.” • Overcome Olson’s law by providing selective benefits: • Goods that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues

19. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? • Small groups are better organized and more focused on the group’s goals. • Multinational corporations are successful because there are few of them and, therefore, have an easier time organizing for political action. • Consumer groups have a difficult time getting significant policy gains because the benefits are spread over the entire population. • Public interest lobbies seek “a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership activities of the organization.”

20. Overcoming the free rider problem • Selective incentives: benefits available only to group members as inducements to get them to join • Material benefit: selective incentive in the form of a tangible reward • Discounts on air fares/hotels; cheaper insurance rates; free trips • Solidary benefit: selective incentive related to the interaction and bonding among group members • Training classes, competitions, contests, hosts dinners

21. Overcoming the free riderproblem, cont’d. • Selective incentives, cont’d. • Expressive or Purposive benefit: selective incentive that derives from the opportunity to express values and beliefs and to be committed to a greater cause • Expanding rights, increasing democracy • Interest groups use a mix of incentives to encourage group membership

22. What Makes an Interest Group Successful?

23. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? • Intensity • Single-Issue groups: groups that focus on a narrow interest, dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics • Groups may focus on an emotional issue, providing them with a psychological advantage. • Intensity encourages non-conventional means of participation. I.e.- protests

24. What Makes an Interest Group Successful? • Financial Resources • Not all groups have equal amounts of money. • Monetary donations usually translate into access to the politicians, such as a phone call, meeting, or support for policy. • Wealthier groups have more resources—and presumably more access—but they do not always win on policy.

25. The Interest Group Explosion

26. Types of Interest Groups • Economic Interests • Labor • Agriculture • Business • Environmental Interests • Equality Interests • Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies

27. Types of interest groups • Economic interest groups: organize to influence government policy for the benefit of members • Corporations and business associations • E.g., National Association of Manufacturers, Chamber of Commerce, Tobacco Institute, General Electric • Unions and professional associations • E.g., AFL-CIO, Teamsters, AMA, ABA • Agricultural interest groups • E.g., American Farm Bureau, Altria, ConAgra

28. Types of interest groups, cont’d. • Equal opportunity interest groups: organize to promote the civil and economic rights of underrepresented or disadvantaged groups • Age • E.g., AARP, Children’s Defense Fund • Race and Ethnicity • E.g., NAACP, LULAC, AIM • Gender • E.g., NOW, EMILY’s List, Eagle Forum • Sexual orientation • E.g., GLAD, PFLAG, Log Cabin Republicans

29. Types of interest groups, cont’d. • Public interest groups: organize to influence government to produce collective goods or services that benefit the general public • Environmental groups • E.g., Sierra Club, Greenpeace • Consumer groups • E.g., Public Citizen, Consumers Union • Religious groups • E.g., Christian Coalition, Anti-Defamation League

30. Types of interest groups, cont’d. • Public interest groups, cont’d. • Second Amendment groups • E.g., NRA, Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence • Reproductive rights groups • E.g., Planned Parenthood, National Right to Life Committee • Human rights • E.g., ACLU, Amnesty International • Animal rights • E.g., Humane Society, PETA

31. Types of interest groups, cont’d. • Government interest groups: organize to lobby the U.S. federal government to influence national policy • Foreign governments • E.g., Japan • State and local governments • E.g., National Governors Association, National Conference of State Legislatures, U.S. Conference of Mayors • Intergovernmental interests

32. How Groups Try to Shape Policy • Lobbying • “communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decisionmaker with the hope of influencing his decision” (Lester Milbrath) • Two basic types of lobbyists: • Regular, paid employees of a group • Temporary hires • Sometimes referred to as “policy entrepreneurs”

33. How Groups Try to Shape Policy • Lobbying • Lobbyists: • are a source of information • help politicians plan political strategies for legislation • help politicians plan political strategies for reelection campaigns • are a source of ideas and innovations • Mixed evidence as to whether lobbying works

34. Interest group politics • Direct lobbying: direct interaction with public officials for the purpose of influencing policy decisions • Indirect lobbying: attempts to influence government policymakers by encouraging the general public to put pressure on them

35. Direct lobbying: Congress • Strategies for congressional lobbying • Personal contacts; target congressional leaders and committee members, not whole HR or S • Campaign contributions • PACs – recent regulations and loopholes coalition • Use of professional lobbyists • Revolving door: tendency of public officials, journalists, and lobbyists to move between public and private sectors • Providing expert testimony • Accurate information to Congress

36. Direct lobbying: Congress, cont’d. • Lobbying reform • Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act, 1946 • Lobbying Disclosure Act, 1995 • Employs a strict definition of lobbyist • Requires lobbyists to: • Register with the clerk of the House and the secretary of the Senate • Report their clients and issues and the agency or house they lobbied • Estimate the amount they are paid by each client • Makes it easier for watchdog groups to track the lobbying activity • Subsequent easing of restrictions • Abramoff scandal – increase pressure to reform; then faded as other intersts (eco!) took headlines

37. Direct lobbying, cont’d. • The president • Target president and Executive Office of the White House • Office of Public Liaison • Revolving door exists here as well • The bureaucracy • Lobby to get laws implemented favorably • Strong relationship with regulators and private sector • Iron triangles • Issue networks • The judiciary • Can take two forms • Direct sponsorship, ie. File suit • Filing amicus curiae briefs • Brief that informs the court of the group’s policy preferences, generally in guise of legal arguments • Interest groups also attempt to influence who is nominated and placed on the bench

38. Indirect lobbying: the public • Education: place issues on public’s agenda using media, direct mail, and publicity stunts • Issue advocacy ads • Reforms • 527 groups • Mobilize the public • Larger membership groups are more successful • Get-out-the-vote

39. Indirect lobbying: the public, cont’d. • Social protest and mass movements: public activities designed to bring attention to political causes; usually done by those without access to conventional means of expressing their views • Unconventional tactics • Violence! Ex. Bombings and burnings

40. Astroturf political campaigns • Grassroots lobbying: indirect lobbying efforts that spring from widespread public concern • Astroturf lobbying: indirect lobbying efforts by interest groups that manipulate or create public sentiment, “astroturf” being artificial grassroots • Pure grassroots lobbying is becoming increasingly rare, but astroturf public interest lobbying is growing • Lobbying moving away from Congress to public, but this may not be any more democratic

41. How Groups Try to Shape Policy • Electioneering • Direct group involvement in the election process • Groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates; some form PACs. • Political Action Committee (PAC): Political funding vehicles created by 1974 campaign finance reforms, PACs are used by interest groups to donate money to candidates. • PACs help pay the bill for increasing campaign costs. • Most PAC money goes to incumbents.

42. How Groups Try to Shape Policy • Litigation • If an interest group fails in one arena, the courts may be able to provide a remedy. • Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to influence a court’s decision. • amicus curiae: briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” to raise additional points of view and present information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties • Class Action lawsuits permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated.

43. How Groups Try to Shape Policy • Going Public • Because public opinion makes its way to policymakers, groups try to: • cultivate a good public image to build a reservoir of goodwill with the public • use marketing strategies to influence public opinion of the group and its issues • advertise to motivate and inform the public about an issue

44. Understanding Interest Groups • Interest Groups and Democracy • James Madison’s solution to the problems posed by interest groups was to create a wide-open system in which groups compete. • Pluralists believe that the public interest would prevail from this competition. • Elite theorists point to the proliferation of business PACs as evidence of interest group corruption. • Hyperpluralists maintain that group influence has led to policy gridlock.

45. Understanding Interest Groups • Interest Groups and the Scope of Government • Interest groups seek to maintain policies and programs that benefit them. • Interest groups continue to pressure government to do more things. • As the government does more, does this cause the formation of more groups?

46. Summary • Group theories: pluralism, elitism, and hyperpluralism • A number of factors influence a group’s success. I.e., being small or large • Interest groups affect policy process through lobbying, electioneering, litigation, and going public.

47. Vocab • Honoraria – fees for giving speeches at special events/dinners • Advertorials – advertisements presented as an editorial, not to promote a good or service but rather to promote a positive image or to advance a policy • Ex. Oil company ad showing how they take pains to protect the environment • Think tank – nonprofit institutions or group of individuals that conduct research on issues of public interest or a particular area of public policy • Revolving door – practice of public officials, journalists and lobbyists to move between public and private sector jobs • Sen Tom DeLay and Sen Bob Dole are now lobbyists for large corporate industries

49. ISSUE NETWORKShttp://www.issue.net/ • Sometimes iron triangles face challenges for control of the bureaucracy from issue networks. These consist of political executives, career bureaucrats, management and policy consultants, academic researchers, journalists, foundation officers, and White House aides, all of whom want fundamental change in the way a bureau operates its programs. They think about the issues in a broader context than do members of iron triangles,... Competition among issue networks, and between them and iron triangles, is good for the White House and good for the country. ... It serves as an antidote for entrenched bureaucratic interests and political privilege. It enables outside policy entrepreneurs to gain access and compete with the iron triangles.

50. Network vs. Triangle • Issue networks are an alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in order to promote a single issue in government policy. Issue networks can be either domestic or international in scope, and many are active solely within the domain of the internet. • Usually, issue networks push for a change in policy within the government bureaucracy. An example includes the wide ranging network of environmental groups and individuals who push for more environmental regulation in government policy. Other issue networks revolve around such controversial issues as abortion, gun ownership rights, and drug laws. • In the United States, the various parties within an issue network include “political executives, career bureaucrats, management and policy consultants, academic researchers, journalists, foundation officers, and White House aides.” • Iron triangles are the mutually beneficial relationships between interest groups, usually private businesses and corporations, congressional oversight committees, and federal agencies. The relationships within Iron Triangles seek only to benefit the three actors involved by pursuing a favorable policy for the interest group, at the expense of the constituencies that Congress and the Federal bureaucracy are supposed to represent, namely the general public. • Issue Networks differ from Iron Triangles in that they seek to support the public interests, not private ones, by seeking to benefit a wide ranging constituency that supports their side of the issue. Issue networks can be antagonistic to iron triangles as they may oppose a policy pushed by a private interest group, and carried out by a government agency. This is particularly the case in regards to environmental issue networks that disagree with the lax environmental standards pursued by private energy companies. It is also important to note that different Issue networks also compete with one another, as in the case of proponents and opponents of abortion rights.