U3C10 Nationalism in Europe

1. U3C10 Nationalism in Europe World History

2. Main Idea In the 1800s nationalism sparked revolutions across Europe. New nations, such as Germany and Italy, formed along cultural lines. Absolute monarchies fell. These nationalist revolutions forever changed the map of Europe-and Europe’s balance of power.

3. Essential Question What are the causes and effects of Nationalism in Europe?

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5. Italian Unification Main Idea In the 1800s, Italian states rebelled against Austria and unified as the Kingdom of Italy. Reading Focus • How did nationalism stir in Italy after the Congress of Vienna? • What role did Cavour and Sardinia play in the path toward Italian unification? • How did Garibaldi and the Red Shirts help unite Italy? • What challenges did Italy face after unification?

6. Stirrings of Nationalism Italian Peninsula had not been unified since fall of Roman Empire • Most spoke same language, but peninsula divided into competing states, each with own government • Napoleon invaded Italy • United many states under one government • Unification did not last • After Napoleon’s defeat, Congress of Vienna split Italian states • Spirit of nationalism began to rise through Europe

7. After Congress of Vienna • Austrian Prince Metternich wanted Congress of Vienna to maintain old Europe, old relationships • 15 years after Congress, old order destroyed beyond repair • 1800s, nationalism a growing force in Europe, fostered by decisions made at Congress of Vienna National Groups Ignored • Congress had ignored national groups, placing them under control of large empires; some empires included different ethnic groups • Italians split into three groups—much of northern Italy under Austrian rule, other states under Hapsburgs, still others under a French ruler • Italian nationalism grew in opposition to these conditions

9. Young Italy Secret Societies • 1831, popular writer, Giuseppe Mazzini, launched nationalist group called Young Italy to fight for unification of Italian states • Mazzini had been exiled but smuggled patriotic pamphlets into Italy • Young Italy attracted tens of thousands of Italians to cause of unification • Italian artists, writers, thinkers became interested in celebrating Italy’s cultural traditions • Others formed secret societies to work for political change, plotted to overthrow Austrian government in Italy Mazzini and Young Italy

10. Define What is nationalism? Answer(s): devotion to one's national group

11. Uprisings, Revolutions Cavour and Sardinia • 1848, nationalist-inspired revolutions spread throughout Europe • In some Italian states, citizens rebelled against Austrian rule • Piedmont declared war against Austria, fought for year, was defeated • Others seized Rome, 1849; French troops helped pope regain control • Only successful revolt was in Sardinia • Rulers forced to grant new constitution; Sardinia remained independent • One of most important leaders of Italian unification emerged, Camillo di Cavour • Founded nationalist newspaper, Il Risorgimento—“resurgence” or “rebirth” The Path Toward Unity As Italian nationalism grew, some Italians led unsuccessful rebellions. Then two men rose to lead a successful movement to unify Italy.

12. Sardinia and Italy • Kingdom of Sardinia • 1852, Cavour became prime minister of independent Kingdom of Sardinia • Believed thriving economy important for Italy to be reborn • Economy • Cavour worked to build Sardinian economy • Believed Italy should be reborn as monarchy • Ally • Cavour in position to cultivate powerful ally • Supported France in war with Russia; gave France provinces of Savoy, Nice • France’s Support • France agreed to support Sardinia in war against Austria • 1860, northern Italian states liberated from control of Austrian Empire

13. Garibaldi and the Red Shirts Sword of Italy • Many Italians consider Cavour “brain” of Italian unification, Mazzini “heart” • Giuseppe Garibaldi has been called “sword” of Italy • Garibaldi joined Young Italy movement, 1833 Exile • Nationalist activities forced Garibaldi to flee Italy twice • Learned techniques of guerilla warfare while living in South America • Returned to Italy often to continue fight to free Italy from Austrian domination Return • 1854, Garibaldi returned for good • Cavour asked to lead part of Sardinian army in war against Austria • After bitter fighting, Austrians agreed to give up Lombardy, retaining Venetia

14. Unification The Red Shirts • 1861, territories held elections, all agreed to unification • Holdouts were Venetia, still belonging to Austria; Papal States, under French troops supporting pope • 1866, Prussia defeated Austria, gave Venetia to Italy • 1870, Prussia forced French to withdraw from Rome • Italian troops entered Rome, completed unification under King Victor Emmanuel • Followers known as Red Shirts because of colorful uniforms • By July 1860, using guerilla warfare, Garibaldi, Red Shirts gained control of island of Sicily • September, Garibaldi, Sardinian troops conquered Naples • Red Shirts now controlled southern part Italian peninsula • Garibaldi offered Kingdom of Two Sicilies to Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel Control and Elections

16. Social, Economic Problems Poverty, Emigration Reforms • Strong regional differences led to lack of unity • Southern Italians resented being governed by Rome • Catholic Church did not recognize Italy as legitimate nation • Poverty serious problem, caused many to emigrate • 1880s, large numbers left Italy, many for Americas • Unemployment, rising taxes led to rioting, violence • Voting reform a major priority • 1870, only wealthiest Italian men could vote • By late 1800s most adult male taxpayers could vote Challenges After Unification In the years after unification, Italy faced many new challenges. Although politically unified, Italy had to deal with a number of social and economic problems.

17. A New Foreign Policy Empire Building • 1882, Italy formed military alliance with Austria-Hungary, Germany • Agreed to defend each other against any possible attack • Arrangement known as Triple Alliance; this, other alliances, brought Europe to war in 1914 • Italy tried to build empire • Tried to gain control over Ethiopia • Failed after being defeated by larger Ethiopian army, 1896 • 1911, Italy declared war on Ottoman Empire; gained territory in Africa Reforms and Empire • As Italy industrialized, particularly in north, government passed reforms including laws limiting work hours, prohibiting child labor • Government encouraged building transportation, water systems to improve cities, encourage industry

18. German Unification Main Idea In the late 1800s, Otto von Bismarck transformed Germany from a loose confederation of separate states into a powerful empire. Reading Focus • What steps did Germany take toward unification? • What was Bismarck’s plan for Germany and how did he hope to achieve it? • How did wars lead to the unification of a German Empire? • In what ways did Germany grow and change after unification?

19. Nurturing Nationalism Revolution • Napoleon nurtured nationalism by uniting German states into confederation • 1815, after Napoleon’s defeat, Congress of Vienna retained organization, renamed it German Confederation • 39 separate states with common language, culture poised for movement to unite • 1848, revolution swept through Europe • German liberals also took opportunity to revolt • Differed over whether to support constitutional monarchy or republic • Agreed that German unity would promote individual rights, liberal reforms Steps Toward Unification Germany was not a unified nation in 1848, although the patchwork of independent states did have a common language and culture.

20. Unkept Promises • Facing calls for increased democracy, Prussian king Frederick Wilhelm IV promised constitution, other reforms • End of 1848, went back on promises; constitution never written • Banned publications, organizations that supported democracy Economic, Cultural Unity • 1834, Zollverein, customs union, created; removed tariffs on products traded between German states • Inspired businesspeople to support unification; encouraged growth of railroads connecting German states; joined Germans economically • German economy growing; sense of German culture growing as well

21. Bismarck’s Philosophy “Blood and Iron” • Not liberal like revolutionaries • Conservative, supported king of Prussia • Believed Prussia destined to lead German people to unification • Practiced realpolitik, policies based on interests of Prussia • Politics of reality evident in push to increase Prussian military power • Speech to Parliament: German unity not won by speeches, majority vote but by “blood and iron” • Built Prussian army into great war machine Bismarck’s Plan for Germany • Otto von Bismarck, conservative politician, leading force behind German unification • Became prominent in Prussian politics • 1847, gave strongly conservative speech at National Assembly • 1862, new Prussian king, Wilhelm I, chose Bismarck as prime minister

23. Result of War Disagreement Leads to War • After brief fight, Denmark gave territory to Austria, Prussia • Prussia controlled Schleswig, Austria controlled Holstein • Austria now held small bit of territory inside Prussia • Bismarck knew to unite Germany, war with Austria inevitable • Disagreement over two border states—Schleswig, Holstein— gave Bismarck opportunity to begin war with Denmark • 1864, formed military alliance with Austria against Denmark • Believed both Schleswig, Holstein should be controlled by German Confederation Bismarck’s First War

24. Preparations Provocation Nationalism • Bismarck worked behind scenes • Promised Venetia to Italy in exchange for support • Persuaded Napoleon III to keep France neutral • Bismarck sent Prussian troops into Austrian state of Holstein • Austria declared war on Prussia • Holstein skirmish gained Prussian support for war • In address to Prussian people, King Wilhelm I blamed Austria for starting war • Appealed to peoples’ sense of nationalism Unification and Empire Bismarck could not increase Prussia’s power as long as Austria was in the way. But with two short wars, Bismarck moved Austria out of the way and established a unified German Empire.

25. Unification Austro-Prussian War • Several other northern states united with Prussia • Only three southern states remained outside Prussian control • Bismarck, Wilhelm used victory to rally other German states around Prussia; war first step toward German unification • War unfolded just as king, Bismarck planned • Highly-skilled, well-equipped Prussian army defeated Austrians in only seven weeks • Treaty ending Austro-Prussian War dissolved German Confederation, forced Austria to surrender Holstein France and Austria

26. The Franco-Prussian War Unified Germany • Despite Austro-Prussian War victory, it would take another war to create unified Germany • Southern German states still not included in North German Confederation Nationalism in South • 1870, conflict brewing with France over disputed Alsace, Lorraine territory • Provinces had been part of Holy Roman Empire, which included Prussia • Issue sparked nationalistic feelings in south German states Peace Treaty • Southern states supported Prussia, north German states in war with France • 1871, Bismarck won Franco-Prussian War • Peace treaty declared unification of Germany

28. Creating the German Empire Peace treaty had far-reaching consequences • Victory established unified German empire • Representatives of allied German states met at Versailles, near Paris • Proclaimed Wilhelm I first kaiser—emperor—of German Empire • Wilhelm appointed Bismarck first chancellor • German victory changed balance of power in Europe • Napoleon III gone; France no longer as powerful • As Germany grew economically, new empire rose in power

29. A New Government Government and the Church • Germany’s 25 separate states wanted to retain some power • Government took federalist form; power shared between state, national governments, Wilhelm led government • Political parties developed • Bismarck believed Roman Catholic Church posed threat to government • Believed government, not church, should control aspects of culture, like education • Worked to restrict influence of Catholic Church in Germany The Empire’s Growth and Change In the years after 1871, Germany prospered. Under the leadership of Wilhelm I and Bismarck, Germany developed into a strong empire. This period was known as the Second Reich, or empire, because Germans considered the Holy Roman Empire to be the First Reich. This struggle between the government and the church was known as Kulturkampf, which means “the struggle for culture.”

30. Economic Growth Railroads • After unification, Germany experienced time of economic growth • France had paid reparations—money for war damages • German leaders used some money to build railroads to link German states Industrial Growth • Other funds helped build German businesses • New empire began to catch up with other industrialized countries of Europe • Coal mines, steel factories flourished in Germany’s major cities Path to Social Reforms • Industrialization had critics in Germany • German socialists protested against harsh factory conditions • Called for state control of all industries

31. Legislation Bismarck tried to destroy socialism • Blamed socialists for two assassination attempts on emperor • Sought to reduce appeal of socialism by enacting own reforms • 1880s, pushed through legislation providing benefits for: • Health • Accidents • Old age • Disability

32. Bismarck and Wilhelm II • After Unification • Bismarck did not want to expand Germany’s borders • Believed France remained a threat, however • Alliances • Bismarck made alliances with Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia • Nations agreed to help protect one another from possible attack • Bismarck Out • 1888, Wilhelm’s grandson became kaiser • Wilhelm II fired Bismarck as prime minister after disagreement • Wilhelm II • Early 1900s, continued to make alliances with other European nations • Built up most powerful military force in Europe

33. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire Main Idea Nationalism broke down two old European empires—the Austrian Hapsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Reading Focus • In what ways did the Austrian Empire struggle with nationalism in 1848 and beyond? • What was the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, and why was it created? • How did nationalism create conflict in the Ottoman Empire?

34. Resistance to Change Carlsbad Decrees Other Prohibitions • Austrian emperor, Foreign Minister Metternich tried to maintain power of monarchy, empire • Metternich accused universities of creating revolutionaries • Metternich called meeting of Confederation, passed Carlsbad Decrees • Prohibited any reforms that conflicted with absolute monarchy • Decrees established censorship of newspapers • Created secret police to spy on students suspected of revolutionary activities The Austrian Empire At the beginning of the 1800s, the Hapsburg family had controlled much of the region for nearly four centuries. But this powerful empire would not remain intact through the remainder of the 1800s.

35. Resistance to Change Metternich not only created restrictive laws for empire • Formed alliances with other European powers trying to prevent nationalist revolutions • Congress of Troppau, 1820 • Called by Metternich, leaders of other powers • Leaders agreed to provide military intervention to support governments against internal revolution

36. Turmoil in Europe, Austria • Metternich able to protect power of Austrian Empire for few years • Events in Europe, changes in empire eventually caught up with him • Revolutions in France, Italy, German states set off revolts in Austrian Empire; people with different nationalities wanted independence Revolution • Demonstrators, army clashed in streets of Vienna • Frightened emperor Ferdinand ordered Metternich to resign • Metternich fled Austria • 1848, Ferdinand abdicated, throne went to nephew, Franz Josef I

37. Resistance to Change During long reign, Franz Josef I ruled over unstable empire • 1848, Hungarian Magyars rebelled against Austrian rule • Almost won independence • Czar Nicholas I of Russia sent troops to help Austria crush revolt • Franz Josef I abolished liberal reforms of 1848, but could not stamp out nationalism • Revoked new constitution, stopped revolution temporarily

38. Forming a New Government Compromise of 1867 • As nationalist movement continued in Europe, Austria lost Lombardy to Italy, 1859 • 1866, Austria’s defeat by Prussia brought new demands from Hungarians • Franz Josef I, Hungarian nationalist movement leaders reached agreement, Compromise of 1867 • Created dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary • Austria, Hungary became two separate, equal states with one ruler, Franz Josef I • Ruler’s title: emperor of Austria, king of Hungary • Each had own parliament, shared ministries of war, finance, foreign affairs The Dual Monarchy Franz Josef I could not stop the nationalist movement. Change came in the form of the Dual Monarchy.

39. Unrest Rural and Industrial • Unrest in empire did not go away; divisions remained among various nationalities • Austrian Germans, Hungarian Magyars did not speak same language • Ethnic minorities received little benefit from Dual Monarchy, continued to seek self-government • Dual Monarchy lasted about 50 years, until 1918 • Eased pressure for nationalism; also had economic advantages • Rural, agricultural Hungary could provide raw materials, food • Industrialized Austria could provide industrial products An Uneven Solution

41. Empire in Decline The Eastern Question • Early 1800s, Ottoman Empire could not defend self against independence movement, external threats • 1830, Greece had gained independence; Russia controlled Caucasus; Serbia self-ruled • Situation created “Eastern Question”—what would happen if Ottoman Empire collapsed? • Russia wanted Constantinople, access to Mediterranean • French, British aided Ottoman Empire, held Russia off The Ottoman Empire • Like Austrian Empire, Ottoman Empire existed for centuries, controlled vast multiethnic territory • Within borders many different religious, ethnic groups—Greeks, Bulgarians, Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Jews • Empire in decline since late 1600s, could not survive changes of 1800s

42. The Crimea • Holy Land • Ottomans, Europeans had dispute over Holy Land • Ottomans gave Roman Catholics control of Palestine holy places • Russian Invasion • Ottomans denied Orthodox Christians same rights • Russians invaded Ottoman territories • Great Britain, France • Great Britain saw Russia as potential threat to India interest • Allied with France • Both joined Ottoman Empire in war against Russia • Stalemate • Crimean War ended in stalemate, caused half million deaths • Nurse Florence Nightingale saved many lives during war

44. The Balkans Hot Spot • Balkans another hot spot in Ottoman Empire • Nationalism in Europe created discontent among ethnic groups in region—Serbs, Romanians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Greeks all wanted independence Conflicts and Wars • Rising nationalism, competing interests of European countries led to series of conflicts, wars in 1800s, early 1900s • Russia involved in several conflicts in Balkans Route to Mediterranean • Russians saw Balkans as route to Mediterranean, wanted to gain • Great Britain, France looking out for own interests, sometimes sided with Russia, sometimes sided with Ottomans

45. National Ties Balkan Wars • Germany, Austria wanted to secure Austrian control over ethnic groups • At end, Balkan Wars cost Ottoman Empire most of its land in Europe • Balkan issues far from settled Constantinople • With Russian troops almost at gates of Constantinople, European powers became alarmed • 1878, Prussia hosted Congress of Berlin to discuss situation Congress of Berlin • Real purpose to overturn gains Russia had made against Ottomans • Gave Austria-Hungary land in Balkans with no consideration to ethnic, national ties; led to conflicts for years to come

46. Representative Government Conflict • Young Turks devoted to restoring constitution • Revolution helped ensure more representative, liberal government • Education improved, government took steps to provide individual liberties • 1908, nationalist group Young Turks began revolution • Young Turks fighting against absolute power of sultan, ruler of Ottoman Empire Political Reform

47. Unrest in Russia Main Idea In the 1800s and early 1900s, Russians rebelled against the absolute power of the czar and demanded social reforms. Reading Focus • What was government and society like in Russia in the first half of the 1800s? • What were some examples of reform and repression in Russia? • How did war and revolution affect Russia in the early 1900s?

48. Absolute Power Huge Empire • To govern large, diverse empire, Russian monarchs ruled with absolute power • Called czars, controlled most aspects of Russian life • Believed in autocracy, government by one leader with unlimited powers • Russia one of great powers of Europe, first half 1800s • Troops helped defeat Napoleon; leaders helped reorganize Europe after his fall • Russia very different from other European powers • Empire huge, stretched eastward far into Asia, included many different ethnic groups Government and Society

49. Serfdom Agricultural Society • Russian society under czars mostly agricultural • Unlike other European countries, Russia had not industrialized • Much of population, serfs—workers considered part of land they worked Serfs • Controlled by lords, wealthy nobles who owned land • Technically not slaves; living conditions, lack of freedom, resembled slavery • Not allowed to leave property where born; did not own land they worked Societal Problem • Serfs had to make regular payments of goods, labor to lords • Some in government wanted to improve conditions, unable to make reforms • Russian serfdom way of life, a major problem in Russian society

50. The Decembrist Revolt Nicholas’s Response • Secret societies formed to fight against czar’s rule • Saw opportunity for change with death of Alexander I, 1825 • One group called Decembrists • Included military officers • 3,000 soldiers assembled near Winter Palace • Refused to declare allegiance to new czar, Nicholas I • Nicholas responded by crushing rebellion • Many Decembrists captured, sent to Siberia, isolated region in far eastern Russia • Five Decembrists executed • Decembrist revolt failed, but began revolutionary movement in Russia destined to grow in years ahead Reform and Repression Russians wanted more freedoms. But Russia’s conservative czars were resistant to reform, which led to revolts, unrest, and repression.