Remember third law of thermodynamics: No system can reach absolute zero.

1. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Guy Lussac’s Law and Absolute Zero Remember third law of thermodynamics: No system can reach absolute zero. How do you determine absolute zero? Consider Guy Lussac’s law: P/T = constant, if V is constant This is for an ideal gas Temperature must get smaller as pressure gets smaller Theoretically, as pressure goes to zero, temperature must go to some smallest value This value is absolute zero and can be determined by measuring the pressure and temperature of a gas at several values and extrapolating to zero pressure

2. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Archimedes’ Principle Archimedes Principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced by the object. Remember from Pascal’s Law - the difference in pressure between any two places in a single fluid is dependent on tne vertical difference of level of the fluid and at any place in a fluid, pressure pushes equally in all directions. So, the sideways forces on an object are balanced and oppose each other equally, but the upward and downward forces are not the same. The pressure at the bottom of the object is greater than the pressure at the top of the object, because pressure increases with increasing depth. The difference between the upward and downward forces acting on the bottom and the top of the object, respectively, is called buoyancy.

3. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Specific Gravity If the mass of an object is less than the mass of an equal volume of water, the bouyant force is greater than the weight of the object and it will float. So the specific gravity is defined as the heaviness of a substance compared to that of water, and it is expressed without units. If something is 7.85 times as heavy as an equal volume of water (such as iron is) its specific gravity is 7.85. Its density (mass per unit volume) is 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter. (The density of water is 1 gr/cm3.) An object with a specific gravity less than 1 will float. A object with specific gravity greater than 1 will sink. Suppose you had equal sized balls of cork, aluminum and lead, with respective specific gravities of 0.2, 2.7, and 11.3 . If the volume of each is 10 cubic centimeters then their masses are 2, 27, and 113 gm. The cork floats and the aluminum and lead sink.

4. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature A steel rowboat placed on end into the water will sink because the density of steel is much greater than that of water. However, in its normal, keel-down position, the effective volume of the boat includes all the air inside it, so that its average density is then less than that of water, and as a result it will float. Hot air balloons rise into the air because the density of the air (warmer air) inside the balloon is less dense than the air outside the balloon (cooler air). The balloon and the basket displaces a fluid that is heavier than the balloon and the basket, so it has a buoyant force acting on the system. Balloons tend to fly better in the morning, when the surrounding air is cool.

5. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Archimedes’ principle is useful for determining the volume and therefore the density of an irregularly shaped object by measuring its mass in air and its effective mass when submerged in water. effective mass under water = actual mass - mass of water displaced (bouyant force) The difference between the real and effective mass therefore gives the mass of water displaced and allows the calculation of the volume of the irregularly shaped object The mass divided by the volume thus determined gives a measure of the average density of the object. Archimedes found that the density of the king's supposedly gold crown (14.2 gr/cm3)was actually much less than the density of gold (19.3 gr/cm3)-- implying that it was either hollow or filled with a less dense substance. 440 gr/31cm3 = 14.2 gr/cm3

6. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Waves A wave is a pattern which is revealed by its interaction with particles. It is a vibration - a movement of particles up and down, side-to-side, or back and forth. Waves on a Pond Animation Wave is moving up and down but not outward - carries energy but not matter. Sound and light are both waves - but different. Sound is the movement of vibrations though matter - solids, liquid, or gases - no matter, no sound. Cannot travel in a vacuum. Light is a vibration of electric and magnetic fields - pure energy - does not require matter.

7. Properties of Waves Any traveling wave will take the form of a sine wave. The position of an object vibrating in simple harmonic motion will trace out a sine wave as a function of time. (Or if a mass on a spring is carried at constant speed across a room, it will trace out a sine wave.) This transverse wave is typical of that caused by a small pebble dropped into a still pool. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Crest Crest - high point of sine wave Trough - low point of sine wave Amplitude (a): maximum displacement from equilibrium Wave length (l): distance between successive crests Trough

8. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Properties of Waves Period: time to complete one cycle of vibration - from crest to crest or trough to trough Frequency (f): number of crests passing a fixed point per second Frequency= 1/period Example: Period = 1/100 = 0.01 sec. Frequency = 100 hertz (cycles/sec.) Speed (of a wave) (s)= wave length x frequency s= l x f

9. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Anatomy of a Wave Animation

10. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Wavelength and Frequency Animation

11. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature TYPES OF WAVES Transverse: Vibration or oscillation is perpendicular to direction of propagation of wave. Examples: water wave, vibrating string, light Longitudinal: Vibration or oscillation is in the same direction as propagation of wave. Examples: sound waves, mass on a spring, loudspeaker

12. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Resonance Resonant frequency - a natural frequency of vibration determined by the physical parameters of the vibrating object. This same basic idea of physically determined natural frequencies applies throughout physics in mechanics, electricity and magnetism, and even throughout the realm of modern physics. Implications: 1. It is easy to get an object to vibrate at its resonant frequencies, hard to get it to vibrate at other frequencies. Consider a child's playground swing (a pendulum). It is a resonant system with only one resonant frequency. With a tiny push on the swing each time it comes back to you, you can continue to build up the amplitude of swing. If you try to force it to swing a twice that frequency, you will find it very difficult.

13. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Resonance Implications 2. A vibrating object will pick out its resonant frequencies from a complex excitation and vibrate at those frequencies, essentially "filtering out" other frequencies present in the excitation. If you just whack a mass on a spring with a stick, the initial motion may be complex, but the main response will be to bob up and down at its natural frequency. The blow with the stick is a complex excitation with many frequency components but the spring picks out its natural frequency and responds to that.

14. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Resonance Implications 3. Most vibrating objects have multiple resonant frequencies. An ideal vibrating string will vibrate with its fundamental frequency and all harmonics of that frequency. The fundamental vibrational mode of a stretched string is such that the wavelength is twice the length of the string. 

15. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature A harmonic is defined as an integer (whole number) multiple of the fundamental frequency. The nth harmonic = n x the fundamental frequency The string will vibrate at the fundamental frequency and all harmonics of the fundamental. Most vibrating objects have more than one resonant frequency and those used in musical instruments typically vibrate at harmonics of the fundamental. Each of these harmonics will form a standing wave on the string. The term standing wave is often applied to a resonant mode of an extended vibrating object. Standing wave modes arise from the combination of reflection and interference.

16. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Interference Two traveling waves which exist in the same medium will interfere with each other. If amplitudes add, - constructive interference. If they are "out of phase" and subtract - destructive interference Constructive interference is the combined result of two waves that are exactly in phase. In other words, both of the waves are operating at the exact same frequency and both of them crest at the exact same moment. Destructive interference is the combined result of two waves that are out of phase. In other words, When the crest of one wave occurs at the same time as the trough of another wave.

17. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Interference Constructive -waves add in phase, producing larger peaks than any wave alone. Destructive-waves add out of phase, producing smaller peaks than a single wave alone.

18. ISNS 3371 - Phenomena of Nature Reflection The string appears to vibrate in segments or regions and the fact that these vibrations are made up of traveling waves is not apparent - hence the term "standing wave".