Ch. 2 Sociological Investigation

1. Ch. 2Sociological Investigation

2. Why Is Sociological Research Necessary? • Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research • Results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and commonsense in understanding society. • Watch Hans and Ola Rosling on “How not to be ignorant about the world”(TedTalk, 2014)

3. Ways of knowing the world…. • Personal: We discover for ourselves the things we know. • Tradition: People hold to a belief because everyone knows it to be true. • Authority: Experts tell us that something is true. • Religion: We accept the truths that our scriptures or religious officials advocate. • Media: Accept reports as “true” even if we know some sources better than others – media has bias • Science: We know what is true based on controlled, systematic observation.

4. Science and sociological theory • Science creates and supports theory: a statement that provides an explanation of a natural or social phenomenon based on well-documented evidence. • A theory must include the following criteria: • tested by experimentation and observation of the natural world. • is falsifiable (i.e. experiments must exist that could prove it false). • cannot be proven, only confirmed or disconfirmed. • subject to revision and change.

5. Three main types of research… • Scientific sociology (structural functionalism) Systematic observation of social behaviour using empirical evidence • Interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction) Describing and interpreting social behaviour in depth • Critical sociology (social conflict) Finding and using strategies to promote social change

6. Scientific Sociology • Scientific explanations differ from other ways of knowing because they enable scientists to resolve differences in understanding the world. • More difficult in the social world. • Science uses an empirical approach to answer questions through a systematic collection and analysis of data • Sociologists use methods like surveys, experiments etc. and employ quantitative analysis to understand the world “scientifically”

7. Principles of Scientific Sociology • Concept: a abstract mental construct that represents part of the world in a simplified form • Variable: a concept whose values change from case to case: a concept that can “vary” and be measured • Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case • Defining concepts and operationalizing a variable: • Specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable • Reliability: consistency in measurement • Validity: measuring what one intends to measure

8. Relationships among variables • Stated as hypotheses and theories • Cause and effect • A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another • Types of variables • Independent: the variable that causes the change • Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

9. Correlation and causation • Correlation • A relationship in which two or more variables change together • Spurious Correlation: An apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable – use “control” to investigate • Conditions forcausality • Existence of a correlation or association • Independent variable precedes dependent variable • Non-spurious

10. Limitations of scientific sociology • The “ideal of objectivity” • Can social scientists be “value-neutral”? • Max Weber said not possible but can aim to be value-free through recognition of personal bias • Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions • The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied • Social patterns change • Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult

11. Interpretive and critical sociology • Collect qualitative data in the real world • Reality is socially constructed • Can also be seen as “empirical” • Data are systematically analyzed and then interpreted/questioned • Methods include interviewing, observation or deconstruction • More subjective than scientific sociology but no less valid • Critical sociology aims to correct inequality but political overtones can create an agenda

12. Limitations in Sociological Research • The Problem of Gender in Research: • Androcentricity/Gynocentricity: Approaching a topic from a male-only or female-only perspective • Overgeneralization: Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes • Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender at all • Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and females • Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher

13. Other limitations and problems in research • Problem of working with human subjects • Research motivated by ideology or blame • “blame analysis” • Overgeneralization • Selective observation • Premature closure of inquiry • Halo effect: overall impression of a person influences the observer's findings • Control: not same as in the natural sciences • Hawthorne effect (esp. in experiments)

14. Other cont. • The HALO EFFECT • Edward Thorndike • 1874-1949 • Influence of impressions • The HAWTHORNE EFFECT • Elton Mayo • 1880-1949 • change in behaviour caused by awareness of being studied

15. Overcoming Bias: “Bracketing” • First, make a list of your characteristics: • 1. your gender; • 2. your age; • 3. your ethnic or national identification; • 4. your religion or philosophy of life; • 5. your political party or orientation; • 6. your favourite psychological theory. • Add four more characteristics: words or phrases that are descriptive of you as an individual.

16. Bracketing (cont.) • 1. Think of ways in which your characteristics might bias you in your efforts at research. • 2. Think of how you might counteract these biases. • 3. And then think of how these efforts to counteract your biases might themselves lead to other biases!

17. Replication and Triangulation • Replication of research by other scientists • Creates greater reliability of results • Triangulation • Use multiple methods, researchers, data and/or theories to create fuller body of sociological knowledge • Increases validity • Triangulation seen as key to creating good, valid and reliable knowledge of the world around us

18. Summary (from Macionis and Gerber)

19. Dimensions of Sociological Research • A. Style of Research • Exploratory: to gain new knowledge • Descriptive: attempt to describe social reality • Explanatory: explain cause and effect relationships • B. Purpose or Focus of Research • Basic: to add to existing body of knowledge • Applied: to solve a perceived societal problem • C. Time Frame • Cross-sectional studies • Longitudinal studies • D. Data Collection Technique • Quantitative (numbers) • Qualitative (words)

20. Quantitative and Qualitative Orientations • Quantitative • Meaningfully expressed by numbers • Provides counts and measures • Qualitative • Meanings, concepts, and definitions • Assessed through words, images, and description

21. Theory and Research Cycle • A theory is a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social phenomena • Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. • The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches. • deductive: from theory to research observations • inductive: from observations to theory creation

22. Inductive and Deductive • Inductive logical thought • Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory • Induction “increases” from specific to general • Deductive logical thought • Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing • Deduction “decreases” from general to specific

23. The Wheel of Research

24. Research Methods For Collecting Data • Research methods are strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research • Methods are chosen according to whom we wish to study and what we wish to learn

25. Quantitative research methods • Surveys: polls in which researchers gather facts or attempt to determine the relationship between facts. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or telephone surveys. Respondents are persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires. • Secondary analysis (i.e. a content or historical analysis) of existing data, researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others. • Experiments are carefully designed situations in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.

26. Qualitative Research Methods • Field research: study of social life in its natural setting: observe and interview people where they live, work, play. • Case study: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. Often involves more than one method, such as participant observation, unstructured or in-depth interviews, and life histories. • Unstructured interview: extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. Used in Field Research and Oral Histories. • Feminist Research Methods: Feminist researchers use the same methods, but in a different way • women-centred. • provide explanations that will help women improve their situation.

27. Multiple Methods • Many sociologists use triangulation and use of multiple approaches in a single study. • Often both quantitative and qualitative techniques used.

28. Research Ethics • The study of people (human subjects) raises vital questions about ethical concerns in sociological research. • The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association (CSAA) has a Code of Ethics that sets forth certain basic standards sociologists must follow in conducting research • SILLY VIDEO (computer generated) on research ethics in sociology

29. Tri-Council Policy Statement:Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans • The Research Ethics Framework: • “Norms for the ethics of research involving human subjects are developed and refined within an ever-evolving societal context, elements of which include the need for research and the research community, moral imperatives and ethical principles, and the law.” • From http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/pdf/TCPS%20October%202005_E.pdf

30. Guiding Ethical Principles • Respect for Human Dignity • Respect for Free and Informed Consent • Respect for Vulnerable Persons • Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality • Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness • Balancing Harms and Benefits • Minimizing Harm • Maximizing Benefit

31. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation • Select and define topic • Review the literature • Develop key questions to ask • Assess requirements for study • Consider ethical issues

32. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation • Select a research methodology • Collect the data • Interpret the findings • State conclusions • Publish the findings

33. Speaker, Dr. Maia Hoeberechts, Associate Director of User Services, Ocean Networks Canada Bio: http://www.oceannetworks.ca/about-us/organization/staff/Maia-Hoeberechts

34. Community-Based Research (CBR) • An increasingly popular form of research that is: • Community-driven • practical relevance • promotes community self-determination. • Participatory • community members and researchers share control of the research and results • Action-oriented • Useful to the community in promoting social change Source: http://www.communitybasedresearch.ca/Page/View/CBR_definition