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Topic 4 – Urban Transportation, Land Use and the Environment

Topic 4 – Urban Transportation, Land Use and the Environment. A – Urban Land Use and Transportation B – Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / Land Use System C – Case Studies. Urban Land Use and Transportation. A. 1. The Transportation / Land Use System

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Topic 4 – Urban Transportation, Land Use and the Environment

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  1. Topic 4 – Urban Transportation, Land Use and the Environment A – Urban Land Use and Transportation B – Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / Land Use System C – Case Studies

  2. Urban Land Use and Transportation A • 1. The Transportation / Land Use System • 2. Transportation and Urban Form • 3. Transportation and Urban Structure

  3. Land Use and Transportation A-1 • Urban areas are transportation / land use systems • Complex entities with a multitude of functions. • System where locations and spatial accumulation form land uses. • Urban land use: • Expresses the attributes of the urban space. • Attempt to interpret spatial elements and their interrelations. • This system is highly complex and includes several relationships. • Each of them is part of a sub-system including the transport system, spatial interactions and land use.

  4. Land Use and Transportation A-1 • Conceptual Overview • The relationships between transportation and land use have been investigated for a long time and subject to numerous approaches. • Von Thunen regional land use model. • Burgess concentric land use model. • Sector and nuclei land use patterns. • Land rent theory.

  5. Formal and Functional Land Use A-1 Functional Land Use Formal Land Use Shopping center Commercial Factories Industrial Park Leisure Apartments High density residential Bungalows Low density residential

  6. The Transport / Land Use System A-1 Infrastructures (supply) Friction of Space Spatial Accumulation (demand) Transport System Spatial Interactions Land Use • Traffic assignment models • Transport capacity • Spatial interaction models • Distance decay parameters • Modal split • Economic base theory • Location theory • Traffic generation and attraction models

  7. Von Thunen’s Regional Land Use Model A-1 Modified Conditions Isolated State Central city Navigable river Market gardening and milk production Firewood and lumber production Crop farming without fallow Crop framing, fallow and pasture Three-field system Livestock farming

  8. The Burgess Urban Land Use Model A-1 Chicago, 1920s Model I - Loop (downtown) Single Family Dwellings Second Immigrant Settlement II - Factory zone Little Sicily III - Zone of transition LOOP Ghetto IV - Working class zone Two Plan Area Apartment Houses V - Residential zone Black Belt VI - Commuter zone Residential District Bungalow Section

  9. Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations A-1 Sector Nuclei 3 3 2 4 1 2 3 3 4 3 5 1 3 7 3 5 3 6 3 4 9 8 1 CBD 2 Wholesale and light manufacturing 3 Low-class residential 4 Middle-class residential 5 High-class residential 6 Heavy manufacturing 7 Sub business district 8 Residential suburb 9 Industrial suburb

  10. Theory of Land Rent A-1 1 Rent Industry/ commercial Apartments Single houses Retail Distance from downtown 2 3 Rent a Retailing b Industry/commercial c Apartments d Single houses a b a b c City limits d d c

  11. Transportation and Urban Form A-2 • Urban form • The form of a city greatly influences and is influenced by travel patterns, origins and destinations. • The dense urban cores of many European, Japanese and Chinese cities enable residents to make 30 to 60 percent of all trips by walking and cycling. • The dispersed urban form of Australian and American cities encourages reliance on the car. • There is a wide variety of urban forms and urban transportation systems. • Impact of the private car • An increasing number of cities worldwide seem to be developing at a scale that increases reliance on the privately owned automobile. • Dispersion is taking place in many different types of cities.

  12. Type I - Completely Motorized Network A-2 Road Highway Activity center

  13. Type II - Weak Center A-2 Road Highway Transit line Activity center

  14. Type III - Strong Center A-2 Road Highway Activity center Transit line

  15. Type IV - Traffic Limitation A-2 Road Highway Transit line Activity center

  16. Transportation and Urban Form A-2 • Major changes • The central business district (CBD): • Once the primary destination of commuters. • Serviced by public transportation. • Rendered obsolete by changing manufacturing, retailing and management practices. • Activities • Traditional manufacturing depended on centralized workplaces and transportation schemes. • Advanced technology has rendered modern industry more flexible. • As a result, job opportunities have shifted to the suburbs and the activity system of cities has been considerably modified.

  17. Evolution of the Activity System of a City A-2 Financial Retailing Wholesaling Financial Insurance Warehousing Industrial Warehousing Wholesaling Transportation Financial Retailing Transportation Wholesaling Industrial Transportation Warehousing A B C Core activities Central activities Peripheral activities

  18. Transportation and Urban Form A-2 • Evolution of transportation and urban form • Generally led to a change in most urban forms. • Dispersed urban land development patterns: • Dominant in North America. • Land is abundant • Transportation costs are low. • Economy dominated by service and technology industries. • Travel has become relatively inexpensive compared with land costs. • Households have an incentive to buy lower-priced housing at the urban periphery. • Similar patterns can be found in many European cities, but the change is occurring at a slightly slower pace.

  19. Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form A-2 • Decentralization of activities • Commuter journeys, many of which now occur from suburb to suburb, are shortened. • Usage of privately owned car rather than public transportation. • Most transit and road systems were developed to facilitate suburb-to-city, rather than suburb-to-suburb, commuting. • Suburban highways are often as congested as urban highways. • Consequences • The cost of building and operating urban transportation systems (highways, roads, transit, etc.) is becoming prohibitive. • Dispersed residential pattern makes transit systems less convenient for commuting. • In the developing world, unplanned and uncoordinated land use development has led to rapid expansion of the urban periphery. • Poorer residents, mainly living in shantytowns, do not have access to affordable and convenient public transportation.

  20. Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form, Technological Impacts A-2 I II III IV I - Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890) II - Streetcar era (1890-1920) III - Automobile era (1920-1945) IV - Freeway era (1945-)

  21. Transportation and Urban Structure A-3 • Strong variations • In the pre-automobile era, about 10% of the land of a city was devoted to transportation. • On average, 30% of the urban surface is devoted to roads while another 20% is required for off-street parking. • United States: • 155,000 square kilometers of the American territory are reserved for car use. • Urban transportation often accounts between 30 to 60% of the surface with infrastructures such as roads, highways and parking spaces. • About 10% of all arable land. • More land is used by cars than land devoted to housing. • For Western Europe roads account for between 15% and 20% of the urban surface and for Third World cities, this figure is about 10%.

  22. Space Consumption by Different Urban Transport Modes A-3

  23. Transportation and Urban Structure A-3 • Suburbanization • Diffusion of ubiquitous and cheap road transportation in urban areas after the Second World War. • Favored the emergence of a new and distinct urban environment. • Available and cheap road transport. • Low land costs and available land (large houses). • Environment (clean and quiet). • Safety. • Car-oriented services (shopping malls).

  24. Suburban Development along an Highway Interchange A-3 Retail Office Industrial Residential Highway Railway Core

  25. Transportation and the Urban Structure A-3 • Changes in urban structures • Fast urbanization processes. • Greater number of people living in cities. • Increased numbers of trips in urban areas. • Expanding the transportation supply. • New highways and/or transit lines. • Building more roads to accommodate an ever-growing number of vehicles • Creating new urban structures. • Ring roads • Facing the expansion of urban areas and the increasing importance of inter-urban movements several ring roads were built around major cities. • Important attribute of the spatial structures of cities, notably in North America.

  26. The Rationale of a Ring Road A-3 Avoiding the congested central area City Center Ring Road Secondary Center Structuring suburban development

  27. Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / Land Use System B • 1. Urban Transport Issues • 2. Land Requirement and Consumption • 3. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction

  28. Urban Transport Issues B-1 • Importance of the issue • Cities are places having a high level of accumulation and concentration of economic activities. • Complex spatial structures to be supported by transport systems. • The most important transport problems are often related to urban areas. • Urban productivity depends in part on the efficiency of its transport system, notably to move labor and merchandises between several origins and destinations. • Urban transportation is concerned about movements of people, goods and information within urban areas. • Cities are important generators and attractors of movements.

  29. Urban Transport Issues B-1 • Segregation • Differentiation between land uses is a generator of movements as people and freight move from several origins and destinations. • The more complex the land use patterns in a city the more complex movements will be. • Efficient and affordable transportation will enhance the segregation of land uses. • Agglomeration • Since cities benefit from agglomeration economies, they also decrease transport costs. • Activities are located nearby each-others so they are accessible. • Agglomeration of movements in a limited area creates traffic, which renders movements more expensive. • Can reach a point where the advantages of agglomeration are overthrown by congestion.

  30. Urban Transport Issues B-1 • Space Consumption • The main goal of transportation is obviously to overcome the friction of space. • Transportation is also a major consumer of space. • Space is the most expansive in urban areas, transport consumes a lot of space in those areas. • Private car: • Requires space to move around (roads). • Also spends 98% of its existence stationary in a parking space. • A significant amount of urban space must thus be allocated to accommodate the private car. • The structure of urban land use has an important impact over transport demand and over the capacity of transportation systems to answer such needs.

  31. Land Requirement and Consumption B-2 • Issue • The land requirement of human activities, particularly in urban areas, has considerably grown. • 30 to 60% of urban areas are taken by road transportation infrastructure alone (road and parking lots). • In extreme cases of dependency on road transportation such as Los Angeles, it reaches 70%. • City size • The notion of cities was replaced by the notion of metropolitan areas and urban regions along corridors. • Reclamation of vast amounts of land from rural activities towards urban use. • Duplication and generalization of infrastructure • Resulted in supplementary land requirements. • The general aim was to convey a high level of accessibility to answer mobility demand of vast areas.

  32. Land Requirement and Consumption B-2 • Density • The geographical growth of cities has not been proportional to the growth of population. • Lower densities and higher waste of space. • Such phenomena have not occurred in the same fashion and in the same proportion over the world. • Typically the case for North American cities. • An increase in the quantity of energy consumed and waste generated has been the outcome. • The urban land use and its transport system have expanded environmental impacts of cities. • The bulk of transport and the environment issues are linked with urban areas.

  33. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction B-3 • Spatial form • The spatial aspect of the city in terms of its extent. • Spatial pattern • The organization of the land use in terms of location. • Spatial interaction • The intensity of movements between spatial entities. • Spatial location of activities (residence, work, shopping, production and consumption). • Indications on the required travel demand and average distances between activities. • Specialized land use functions and a spatial segregation between economic activities, interactions are increasing in proportion. • The outward expansion of cities has given a relative uniform distribution of land use densities, notably in cities with a previously low level of density.

  34. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation B-3 Form Pattern Interaction

  35. Morphology, Urban Transportation and OR B-3 g1(qij) Spatial strategies Optimization g2(qij) Transport strategies Transport Costs g3(qij) Traffic assignment

  36. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction B-3 • Residence / work separation • Becoming acute as well as the average commuting distance. • The average commuting time has climbed from 21.7 minutes in 1980 to 22.4 minutes in 1990. • Different urban concentrations are linked to different levels of energy consumption and environmental impacts. • Difficult to provide transportation services at an efficient cost. • Land use changes • A slow process. • Annual rates lower than 2% makes it difficult to establish sound transportation / land use strategies that could have effective impacts in a short period. • It took 30 to 50 years to North American, Australian and to some extent European cities to reach their current patterns. • May take the same amount of time to reach a new "equilibrium". • The environmental impacts of transportation and land use are likely to stay prevalent in the urban context for several decades.

  37. Integration of Urban Transportation Modes B-3 Passenger terminal Main transit line Parking area Highway Inner-city pedestrian area Primary ring road Suburban development corridor Secondary ring road

  38. Case Studies C • 1. The Chinese Context • 2. Urban Land Use Changes in China • 3. Urban Transportation in Shanghai • 4. Urban Transportation and Air Pollution in Shanghai • 5. Policies and Challenges

  39. Crude Oil Production and Consumption, United States, 1981-1998 (in 1,000 of barrels per day) C-1

  40. Crude Oil Production and Consumption, China, 1981-1998 (in 1,000 of barrels per day) C-1

  41. Pre 1980s Chinese City C-2 Transportation Land Use “Center of power” Main arterial Commercial / Institutional Rail Compact Transit-oriented Labor intensive industrial High density agricultural

  42. Pre 1980s Chinese City C-2 • Spatial structure • Work unit as basic organizational structure. • Compact and limited mobility needs. • Walking and cycling are dominant. • Several nucleus. • Locally oriented development. • Limited centrality. Resource and commercial hinterland Agricultural hinterland National Economy

  43. Post 1980s Chinese City Freeway Mass transit Compact motorized Administrative / commercial New industrial activities Development zones Terminals / logistical C-2 Transportation Land Use “Center of power” Main arterial Commercial / Institutional Rail Compact Transit-oriented Labor intensive industrial High density agricultural

  44. Post 1980s Chinese City C-2 • Spatial structure • Mixture of local and international actors. • Creation of a motorized space. • “Spatial stamping”. • Morphological “creative destruction”. • Emerging centrality / polynuclearism. Resource and commercial hinterland Agricultural hinterland Migration Global Economy National Economy

  45. Office Space Supply and Demand, Beijing 1984-2000 C-2

  46. Mode Used for All Trip Purposes, Shanghai 1995 C-3

  47. Main Modes Used for Commuting in the United States, 1995 C-3

  48. Evolution of Non-Pedestrian Modal Use, Shanghai 1981-1995 C-3

  49. Non-Pedestrian Modal Use, Shanghai 1995 C-3

  50. Performance of the Taxi Industry, Shanghai, 1991-1998 C-3

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