Literature Review and Referencing

1. Literature Review and Referencing Gerry S. Doroja, MSCS Associate Professor Department of Computer Science Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan [gsd@xu.edu.ph] August 17, 2004

2. Literature Review

4. What is the typical research lifecycle?

5. What is the typical research lifecycle? (1) Definition: THE PROBLEM - Research defines a new problem, new constraints, new opportunity, or a new approach. (2) Initial Solutions: CREATE UNITS - Initial algorithms, designs, theorems, programs are developed. (3) Evaluation of Initial Solutions: EVALUATE UNITS - Initial solutions are evaluated and refined in isolation. (4) Comparison of Solutions: COMPARE UNITS - Solutions are compared to one another and also to ideal solutions. (5) Space of Possible Solutions: SPACE OF UNIT’S IDEAL MODEL - Theorems are proved about the limits on any solutions. Existing solutions are placed in a common framework to determine whether all possible solutions have been found. (including exploratory theory and tradeoff) (6) Technology Transfer: Best approaches are transferred to users.

6. Research Project Phases, Research Methods & the Literature Review

7. What is the literature? the works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem NOT novels and poetry (as the usual interpretation of the word “literature)

8. What are the sources for the literature review? Journal articles Books Conference proceedings Government and corporate reports Newspapers Theses and dissertations Internet (electronic journals) CD-ROM Magazines

9. Journal articles: good especially for up-to-date information; can take up to two years to publish articles; offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research; and, reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research).

10. Books:  less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article ( i.e., five years) textbooks not very useful in your literature review as they are intended for teaching, not for research; however, textbooks do offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources.

11. Conference proceedings: useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published; also helpful in providing information on which people are currently involved in which research areas; thus, can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers.

12. Government/corporate reports: (many) government departments and corporations commission or carry out research; and their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study.

13. Newspapers: generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience; information they provide will be of very limited use for the literature review; more helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy; but, you should then search for more detailed information in other sources

14. Theses and dissertations: can be useful sources of information; disadvantages: 1) they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; and, 2) the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. 

15. Internet: fastest-growing source of information; impossible to characterize the information available; some hints about using electronic sources: 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable; 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed); and, 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - if they are refereed it means that there is an editorial board that evaluates the work before publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal).

16. CD-ROMS: few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized, detailed information about academic research that you need for your own research since most are intended for a general audience.   However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the information you need.

17. Magazines: intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need. specialized magazines may be more useful (for example computer magazines for computer science students) but usually magazines are not useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more specialized sources.

18. Why write a literature review? To provide a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that you are carrying out; Some people think that it is a summary: this is not true.   Although you need to summarize relevant research, it is also vital that you 1. evaluate this work, 2. show the relationships between different work, and 3. show how it relates to your work.

19. Why write a literature review? You cannot simply give a concise description of, for example, an article: you need to: 1. Select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the methodology), 2. Show how it relates to the other work (e.g. What other methodologies have been used? How are they similar? How are they different?); and, 3. Show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship to your methodology?).

20. Why write a literature review? The literature review should provide the context for your research by looking at what work has already been done in your research area. It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's work!

21. Here are some of the questions your literature review should answer: 1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned? (SUMMARY) 2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or variables? 3. What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or variables? 4. What are the existing theories? 5. Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding? 6. What views need to be (further) tested? 7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited? 8. Why study (further) the research problem? 9. What contribution can the present study be expected to make? 10. What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory? 

22. Writing your own literature review: easy to write a bad literature review difficult to write a good one

23. Example of a bad literature review: Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field.  Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here. JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and especially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units. HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall. SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (1965) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, basing on the theoretical investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data. and so on.

24. Which of the questions does this literature review answer? The literature review offers a summary of previous research, so it answers question 1. It simply tells the reader what was discovered in previous research. 

25. Which of them it did not answer? This literature review did not answer any of the questions from 2 to 10. It doesn't evaluate the research it summarizes, nor does it show the relationships between the different theories, views and approaches it describes. 

26. Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review? The writer has organized this literature review around the researchers, and has presented it chronologically (arranging the work by when it was published). Notice that by organizing it around the researchers (the summaries are listed after the names of the people who did the research) and not around the research (e.g. around key concepts) the writer emphasizes the people and not their work.

27. Is it a good literature review? Why? Not a good literature review Only gives a summary of previous research but it does not use the literature to explain more about the writer's own research problem Not critical: did not emphasize which theories or findings are important, which are inconclusive, what the shortcomings are, etc.

28. Is it a good literature review? Why? does not show how previous research relates to the writer's own research problem, or the relationship between different research already carried out. the organization is not effective for showing relationships, drawing comparisons, or making evaluations. 

29. How to write a good literature review? Remember the purpose: it should answer the questions mentioned earlier. Look at how published writers review the literature. You'll see that you should use the literature to explain your research - after all, you are not writing a literature review just to tell your reader what other researchers have done. Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out, etc.

30. How to write a good literature review? Read with a purpose: you need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to your research (so you can emphasize them), and which are less important and can be covered briefly or left out of your review. You should also look for the major concepts, conclusions, theories, arguments etc. that underlie the work, and look for similarities and differences with closely related work. This is difficult when you first start reading, but should become easier the more you read in your area.

31. How to write a good literature review? Write with a purpose: your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own. In order to do this effectively you should carefully plan how you are going to organize your work.

32. How to write a good literature review? A lot of people like to organize their work chronologically (using time as their organizing system). Unless developments over time are crucial to explain the context of your research problem, using a chronological system will not be an effective way to organize your work. Some people choose to organize their work alphabetically by author name: this system will not allow you to show the relationships between the work of different researchers, and your work, and should be avoided!

33. How to write a good literature review? When you read for your literature review, you are actually doing two things at the same time (which makes things more difficult for you!): you are trying to define your research problem: finding a gap, asking a question, continuing previous research, counter-claiming; you are trying to read every source relevant to your research problem. Naturally, until you have defined your problem, you will find that there are hundreds of sources that seem relevant. However, you cannot define your problem until you read around your research area. This seems a vicious circle, but what should happen is that as you read you define your problem, and as you define your problem you will more easily be able to decide what to read and what to ignore.

34. Some traps to avoid: Trying to read everything! As you might already have discovered, if you try to be comprehensive you will never be able to finish the reading! The idea of the literature review is not to provide a summary of all the published work that relates to your research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant work.

35. Some traps to avoid: Reading but not writing! It's easier to read than to write: given the choice, most of us would rather sit down with a cup of coffee and read yet another article instead of putting ourselves in front of the computer to write about what we have already read! Writing takes much more effort, doesn't it? However, writing can help you to understand and find relationships between the work you've read, so don't put writing off until you've "finished" reading - after all, you will probably still be doing some reading all the way through to the end of your research project. Also, don't think of what you first write as being the final or near-final version. Writing is a way of thinking, so allow yourself to write as many drafts as you need, changing your ideas and information as you learn more about the context of your research problem.

36. Some traps to avoid: Not keeping bibliographic information! The moment will come when you have to write your references page . . . and then you realize you have forgotten to keep the information you need, and that you never got around to putting references into your work. The only solution is to spend a lot of time in the library tracking down all those sources that you read, and going through your writing to find which information came from which source. If you're lucky, maybe you can actually do this before your defence - more likely, you will unable to find all your sources, a big headache for you and your committee. To avoid this nightmare, always keep this information in your notes. Always put REFERENCES into your writing.

37. Literature Review: A (Good) Example Roll, Y., M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh. “On the optimal container size in automated warehouses”, Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR. Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are being introduced into the industry and warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts indicate that this trend will continue for the foreseeable future (see [1]). Research in the area of AS/RS has followed several avenues.  Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7] was concerned with storage assignment and interleaving policies, based on turnover rates of the various items. Elsayed [3] and Elsayed and Stern [4] compared algorithms for handling orders in AR/RS. Additional work by Karasawa et al. [9], Azadivar [2] and Parry et al. [11] deals with the design of an AS/RS and the determination of its throughput by simulation and optimization techniques. Several researchers addressed the problem of the optimal handling unit (pallet or container) size, to be used in material handling and warehousing systems. Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14], Tanchoco et al. [15] and Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject. The last two references incorporate the size of the pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the optimal lot sizes for multi-inventory systems with limited storage space. In a report on a specific case, Normandin [10] has demonstrated that using the 'best-size' container can result in considerable savings. A simulation model combining container size and warehouse capacity considerations, in an AS/RS environment, was developed by Kadosh [8]. The general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]. Nevertheless, container size was found to affect strongly overall warehousing costs. In this paper, we present an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a warehouse container.  The approximation is based on series of generalizations and specific assumptions.  However, these are valid for a wide range of real life situations. The underlying assumptions of the model are presented in the following section.

38. Notice how the writers have: Grouped similar information: "Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14], Tanchoco et al. [15] and Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject." Shown the relationship between the work of different researchers, showing similarities/differences: "The general results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]." Indicated the position of the work in the research area history: "Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7]  .  .  .  " Moved from a general discussion of the research in AS/RS to the more specific area (optimal container size) that they themselves are researching i.e. they relate previous work to their own to define it, justify it and explain it.

39. Here is an outline of the same piece of writing: On the optimal container size in automated warehouses by Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh, in Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR 1. Forecasts of increasing rate of AR/RS introduction [1] 2. Storage assignment/interleaving policies (Hausman, Schwarz, Graves [6,7]) 3. Comparison of algorithms for handling orders (Elsayed [3], Elsayed & Stern [4]) 4. Design of AS/RS & determination of throughput (Karasawa et al. [9], Azadivar [2], Parry et al. [11]) 5. Optimal handling unit (Steudel [13], Tanchoco & Agee [14]) a. with pallet size/unit load (Tanchoco et al. [15], Grasso & Tanchoco [5]) b. “best-size” gives savings (Normandin [10]) c. simulation model (Kadosh [8]) d. stochastic flow (Kadosh [8], Rosenblatt and Roll [12]) 6. Summary of previous research: “container size was found to affect strongly overall warehousing costs.” 7. Present research: “an analytical framework for approximating the optimal size of a warehouse container.” From this outline, it is clear that the writers are organizing their information around ideas (in this case research) not around the researchers. This enables them to focus on the research itself, to show how different research is related, and how it all relates to their own research.

40. Referencing

41. What is referencing? Referencing (also called citing or documenting) your sources means systematically showing what information or ideas you are quoting or paraphrasing, and where they come from. You are entitled to use someone else's words, ideas or information in your work  - and in fact you have to do so - but you must show that they are not your own by indicating their source.

42. What is referencing? Referencing systems vary between different fields of study and between different journals or publishers within a field of study. Despite this variation, all referencing systems have the same basic components: an in-text reference to show that a piece of information, idea, quotation, etc. you have included in your writing belongs to another writer. It is always designed to be short because it is interrupting the text, and is usually in parentheses:

43. What is referencing? Example: In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand (Honda 1995). ORIn recent years, there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand (Honda, 1995). ORIn recent years, there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand (Honda 135).ORIn recent years there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand [1].ORIn recent years there has been a rapid increase in car sales in Thailand1.

44. What is referencing? The reader then uses the in-text reference to find full bibliographic information (about when and where the source was published, and by which publisher) either at the end of the page or more usually at the end of the paper (as a footnote), thesis or book (depending on the referencing system used). A referencing system that in the text uses the author's family name will always list sources on the references page alphabetically by author's family name; a referencing system that uses numerical in-text references will usually list sources in the order in which they appear in the writing (not by author's name). This enables the reader to find sources easily.

45. What is referencing? Problems: Mixing two referencing systems. If you are using (name year) for your in-text references, do not list your sources by number on your references page because your reader will be looking for the author's name. Similarly, if you are using numerical in-text references, you cannot list your sources on your references page by author name - your reader will be looking for numbers. What should you do if there is more than one author listed? For the in-text reference, for a paper with two authors list by paper by both (for example, Shaw and Clayton, 1996), but for a paper with more than two authors list by the main author and add et al. (literally "and the others"), e.g. (Jones, Suzuki and Chan 1997) is written as (Jones et al., 1997). Note: do not change the order of the names, i.e. you cannot write (Chan et al., 1997) because Chan is not the main author.

46. What is referencing? Problems: What should I do if there is no author listed? Some articles are credited to organizations rather than to individuals (e.g. many software manuals) so the organization is listed as the "author." Many on-line materials do not have an author listed: again, often the organization is used or, if no organization owns the material, then it is referred to by its title. Adapting existing referencing systems for your own work. Why make work for yourself by adapting an existing referencing style? Use a referencing style that is commonly used in your field and use it yourself. Besides, strange, new styles will only confuse your reader (and as a student, your readers are your professors), and are often used just because the writer didn't bother to follow an existing referencing style! [XUCS prescribes the Chicago Style]

47. What is referencing? Problems: What should you do if you want to use information by Writer X that you have found quoted or paraphrased in Writer Y? Your first choice should be to refer to the original source. For example: you find a book by Honda published in 1993 that says: "A study by Singh (1990) has shown that 60% of clowns suffer from chronic depression". If you want to use this information, try to find the study by Singh and read it for yourself. If this is difficult or impractical, you should indicate where you found the information. You cannot attribute the information simply to Honda (as that writer was not the person who did the research) and you cannot attribute it to Singh (unless you have read Singh's study). Instead, in your research, you will write something like this: Previous research supports this argument, since it has been found that 60% of clowns are sufferers of chronic depression (Singh, 1990, cited in Honda, 1993). This shows that you found the information from Singh in a piece by Honda and that you did not read the original, i.e. if there's a mistake, it's Honda's not yours!

48. What must be referenced? all work done by other researchers, and that you want to refer to in your own writing. other writers' words You must reference all information and ideas from existing work that you use in your writing, whether you use the source's words or your own. All information that is not referenced is assumed to be general knowledge (in your field) or to come directly from you, so neglecting to reference someone's work often means you are leading your reader to believe that the work is your own (i.e., plagiarism ).

49. What does not need to be referenced? general knowledge (e.g. that George W. Bush is the President of the U.S.A., that China has a larger population than Thailand), information that is common knowledge in your field, and ideas that are definitely your own, and findings or insights from your own research.

50. Problems What should you do if you find that your idea has already been published by another writer?Acknowledge the other writer's work, for example by writing in your reference something like: (see also Wong, 1993). You must not ignore the other author's work, because your readers may think that you have either taken the idea or information without referencing (this is plagiarism) or that you do not have a good idea of the literature in your field.

51. Problems What should you do if you want to use an adapted version of someone else's work?You must still cite  the original work. For example, maybe you are using a diagram from an article by Wattana published in 1996, but you have altered it. Reference the adapted diagram as (adapted from Wattana 1996). You can also use other terms in order to specify the exact relationship between the source and the version you have presented e.g. based on Wattana 1996, summarized from Wattana 1996, etc.

52. Problems What should you do if several authors have published very similar information or ideas? You can indicate that the idea or information can be found in the work of more than one author, e.g. Though in fact many authors have described this kind of system (for example, Hynes, 1989; Wu, 19991; Lefrère, 1994) little work has been done on extending it to application to robotic systems. If you only reference one author, then your readers may assume that only one author has published this on this topic, or that you have not read the literature thoroughly and are not aware of the other work published in this area. Use your referencing to give your readers a clear idea of the situation, not a distorted one, and to demonstrate your knowledge.

53. Problems Should you avoid referencing other people's work? Referencing other people's work is NOT a sign of weakness in their own work. In fact, the opposite is true. If you write up your research with no references to previous work, you are indicating to your reader that you are not familiar with the research that has already been done, and are therefore undermining your own credibility and the validity of your own work. Including references is a way of demonstrating your knowledge of your field -  therefore you must refer to previous work.

54. Problems What if I find exactly what I want to say in other people's writing? It depends on what it is; if someone else has done the same thesis as you, then you're going to have to change your topic, or find something new to say about what you're doing.  If it is someone else's particularly succinct expression, but fits perfectly what you have been trying to say, you can quote directly, citing the page reference as well as the author and year of publication.

55. Different Referencing Systems Chicago style: this referencing system is used widely in science and technology, and in some fields of the humanities. The in-text reference uses the family name of the author/s plus the year the work was published: In-text reference:(Smith 1978)        Note: no comma between name and dateOR . . . according to Smith (1978) If there are more than two authors, generally the name of the first is used followed by the words "et al." (which means "and others").E.g.  The yield has substantially increased since 1993 (Wong et al. 1997).

56. Different Referencing Systems References page:This page comes at the end of the paper, thesis or book (but before any appendices) and has full bibliographic information. In other words, it provides all the publication (or other information about the source) that readers need to either find it themselves or to assess its validity. It contains a list arranged alphabetically by the last name of the main author and only includes works that have been referred to in the text (i.e. that have in-text references. E.g. Smith P. 1988. An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy agriculture. Journal of Rice Production, 8: 34-60.Wong, X., M. Singh and P. Duncan. 1997. Increasing rice yields in wet paddy. Agricultural Review 15: 167-191.

57. Different Referencing Systems APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This system is primarily used by those writing in the social sciences. It is similar to the Chicago style. In-text reference:(Smith, 1978) Note: comma between name and dateFor referencing a quotation or specific part of a source: "Development will be slowed by such a move" (Smith, 1988, p. 80)

58. Different Referencing Systems References page:As for the Chicago style, only works referenced in the text are included, and are listed alphabetically by main author's last name. E.g. Smith, P. (1988). An argument against wet paddy mechanization of wet paddy agriculture. Journal of Rice Production, 8, 34-60.Wong, X., Singh M. & Duncan, P. (1997). Increasing rice yields in wet paddy. Agricultural Review, 15, 167-191.

59. Which referencing system should be used? Chicago Style or APA Style

60. Referencing Online Sources Referencing systems for electronic sources are becoming standardized (so do not try and reference sources by inventing a system yourself or adapting an existing non-electronic system!). The in-text reference should follow the same format as for printed sources; however, the bibliographic information on your references page will be different and generally requires you to include the type of resource plus when it was accessed, as well as the URL for on-line sources. For example,  American Council of Learned Societies (2000). "Fulbright Economics Teaching Program, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam". Available online: http://www.acls.org/pub-list.htm. (Downloaded: May 10,2000).

61. Referencing Online Sources For further information, consult the following link: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~sources/contents.html This site gives a complete, clearly organized summary of all the main issues involved in citing sources. University of Southern Mississippi This is a good reference site for APA style. Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger have published a book on citing Internet sources called on Online! The book's website has excellent advice on each style.  For APA: http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite6.html#1For MPA: http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite5.html#1For Chicago: http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/online/cite7.html#1 How to Cite Electronic Resources from Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts Citation Guides for Electronic Documents from the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions.

62. Quoting and Paraphrasing A quotation is the use of your source's exact words in your work. A quotation may be as short as one word but, if that word is significant, it must be put in quotation marks and referenced. 

63. Quoting and Paraphrasing Quotations should include the exact words of your source inside quotation marks, e.g. "Everything we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996: 45). If you look in Kenny 1996 at page 45 you will find the words Everything we do is an experience of a kind with no alterations or omissions. However, you can make changes, if necessary, as follows: leaving out a word or words:ORIGINAL"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still considered a secondary activity, mechanical rather than creative, neither worthy of serious critical attention nor of general interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993: 34). SHORTENED"In many academic circles in America, literary translation is still considered a secondary activity . . . neither worthy of serious critical attention nor of general interest to the public" (Gentzler 1993: 34).

64. Quoting and Paraphrasing No matter how many words you take out, you only use three dots (except if the quoted sentence comes to an end, in which case you use three plus a full stop, i.e. four). Also, there is no need to use en ellipsis ( . . . ) at the beginning and end of each quotation.

65. Quoting and Paraphrasing Note the use of page numbers here -  in this case, the quote is borrowed from page 34 of Gentzler's 1993 publication. You should always give page numbers when you quote text directly from a source. making small alterations/clarifications: ORIGINALRaymond (1996) argues that, "The people never knew what good food was" (p.245). ALTEREDRaymond argues that "[t]he people [in England] never knew what good food was" (1996: 245). Here the writer clarifies who "The people" are, and changes capital T to small to fit the writer's sentence structure.

66. Quoting and Paraphrasing Quotations should be included in your sentence. For example: INCORRECT"Everything we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996: 45). CORRECTIt can be argued that "[e]verything we do is an experience of a kind" (Kenny 1996: 45). Here the writer has included Kenny's quotation in his/her own sentence. The quotation should fit grammatically into your sentence - so choose the point at which to start.

67. Quoting and Paraphrasing Quotations must be indicated with quotation marks (" . . .") unless you are using a long quotation, in which case it should be set in an indented block This is a long quotation and so is not shown by quotation marks but by being set in a block that is indented and usually single-spaced. The exact style of indentation (e.g. indented on one side or both, indented by three or five spaces) will depend on the style you are using in your work (e.g. Chicago, etc.) (Brightwell, 1998)

68. Quoting and Paraphrasing Quotations should be kept short and kept to a minimum (i.e. only use quotations when the words themselves are important). Avoid using a large number of quotations as they mean you are letting your sources present ideas instead of you presenting your own.

69. Quoting and Paraphrasing Paraphrasing means putting an author's ideas or information into your own words: Original  "This has led to the conclusion that, out of the US population at large, 90% watch television to excess" (Wu, 1994). Paraphrased"In contradiction to Suzuki’s claim, Wu argues that 90% of Americans watch too much television (1994)".  There is no need to use Wu's exact words as it is his information (not his words) that is important here. Notice too that with paraphrasing it is easier to comment on the work you are referring to (e.g. here it is compared to Suzuki's). It is also not usually necessary to give page numbers when paraphrasing. You should be careful to indicate which are your ideas and which are the author's by careful use of references and by where and how you break sentences. This is a subtle art and you should look at published work for examples for how to do this effectively.

70. Quoting and Paraphrasing Paraphrasing must include page references. This is necessary, as you are claiming that the quote you are reproducing is authoritative; the reader needs to be able to check the exact point in the text to which you refer. Paraphrasing is more generally used than quoting as it enables you to comment on, evaluate and summarize information; Paraphrasing can be used with quotations (i.e. you can quote within a paraphrase); Paraphrasing must always be referenced (because you are using someone else's ideas or information);  Paraphrasing is never enclosed by quotation marks or indentation; Paraphrasing does not mean a word-for-word rewrite of the original (usually you are summarizing your source or highlighting one or more points).

71. Plagiarism This means using someone else's words, ideas or information without referencing them - in other words, presenting them as your own. Any work that is not referenced is assumed to be yours, so ensure that this is true.  Plagiarism is considered a serious academic offence in most academic institutions (see XU Student Handbook) To avoid it, use quotations and paraphrases with proper referencing. When you are reading, keep careful notes of your sources, including all the bibliographic information that you need to write a full reference for the sources.

72. What “may be” considered an “Authoritative” Literature Search in Computer Science? Local (Northern Mindanao/Mindanao) XUCS Research Page Department of Computer Science, Xavier University (http://courseweb.xu.edu.ph/courses/research/index.html) Methods of Research in CS Page Department of Computer Science, Xavier University (http://courseweb.xu.edu.ph/courses/msit121/) XU Main Library Web Site Xavier University Main Library (WebOPAC, Online Databases – including Wilson OmniFile and EBSCO Databases) Web Sites of Schools with CS/IT Research Programs MSU-IIT, CU, LDCU, ADDU, DZU

73. What “may be” considered an “Authoritative” Literature Search in Computer Science? National Web Sites of Schools with CS/IT Research Programs ADMU, DLSU, UPD, UPLB Web Sites of Government Organizations ASTI, PCASTRD, SEI, CS/IT Related Research Conference/PublicationsPJMIT, PJS, CSP (Computing Society of the Philippines Annual Computer Conference)

74. What “may be” considered an “Authoritative” Literature Search in Computer Science? International IEE INSPEC Database(http://www.iee.org/publish/inspec/)Produced by IEE ResearchIndex(http://www.researchindex.org) Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)(http://www.acm.org) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)(http://www.ieee.org) Theses and Dissertation Database (of Computer Science Departments of Universities)

75. Some Recommended Computer Science Sites Networked Computer Science Technical Reference Library: An international collection of computer science research reports and papers made available for non-commercial use from a number of participating institutions and archives. Computer Science Directory: A well-organized search capability for computer science papers and algorithms. National Science Digital Library: Provides search capability plus links to other libraries. Computing and Information Technology Interactive Digital Educational Library: Contains a useful and growing collection of resources Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies: A collection of bibliographies of scientific literature in computer science from various sources, covering most aspects of computer science. Updated monthly; has nearly one million entries. INFOMIME A virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty, students, and research staff at the university level. Links for Computer Science Researchers An excellent collection of links.

76. Literature Review - Exercise Develop an outline/initial draft of your literature review chapter based on the suggestions and recommendations in this lecture. Due on: August 24, 2004.