ARISTOTLE: Background

1. ARISTOTLE: Background PLATO: The forms [patterns or ideals] are not this world and can only be known through a process of education – • Thus morality is based on the highest knowledge available only to a few. ARISTOTLE: The “forms” [or patterns] that enable us to understand objects don’t exist apart from particular objects. • Thus morality is not based on a "good" independent of experience, but on experience itself.

2. ARISTOTLE: What He Asks Aristotle asks: What do people desire? He says we desire an end that is: self-sufficient, final, attainable • According to Aristotle this end can only be HAPPINESS. • And happiness can only be explained in terms of our capacity for reason.

3. How ARISTOTLE Classifies Knowledge & Human Activities Theoretical Sciences -- include Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics Productive /Practical Sciences -- are those where reason serves human beings. • Productive Sciences -- involve "know-how" and cover many crafts, including art. • Practical Science or ETHICS -- Here humans are AGENTS rather than producers. • The "end" of the “Practical Science is not a product, but the living of a certain kind of life.

4. Aristotle’s Starting Assumptions Every activity has its proper end at which it aims. ["end in itself"] Politics is the "master art" -- why? Who should practice it? Contemporary relevance? Different ”Sciences" will have different levels of precision. • Ethics, dealing with opinions, will not have the same kind of precision as mathematics. • The best judge of the appropriate precision is a person educated in that subject.

5. Happiness is the aim of Human Existence Aristotle thought that there was agreement among people that the ultimate human good is happiness. Why? [what is Aristotle assuming about human interests? • It is FINAL [is that for which everything else is done] • It is SELF-SUFFICIENT [by itself it makes life desirable] • It is ACHIEVABLE BY ACTION [attainable]

6. Aristotle’s Definition of Happiness The "function of man" is an activity of the soul that follows a rational principle. Aristotle’s definition relies on his analysis of the soul and the Greek definition of virtue • VIRTUE is the appropriate excellence for an activity -- What that activity aims at. [ virtue =being good at ____ for the Greeks] • Thus HAPPINESS [as the goal or "excellence" of human life] is "activity of the soul in accord with virtue"

7. Reason, the Human Soul and Virtue The human soul has two elements. • Rational [grasps a rule or principle] • Irrational The rational part has two functions • The exercise of reason for its own sake. • The control of the irrational part 2 kinds of virtue parallel the functions of reason. • Intellectual Virtues: consist of instruction & knowledge - the "virtues of intellect" • Moral Virtues: consist of practical actions & habits of choice. - the "virtues of character"

8. Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of Character” involving the "Mean" According to Aristotle the human personality has three elements: • Passions • Faculties • States of character. The passions and faculties [abilities] are not blameworthy or praiseworthy in themselves Thus Virtue must be a state of character. • Virtue makes a man good • Virtue makes him do his own work well.

9. Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of Character” involving the "Mean" • Every activity has an excess and a defect. • The master of an art avoids the extremes • BUT the "mean" or balance is relative to each of us • In summary: virtue is a state of character, lying in a meanrelative to us, which is determined by a rational principle.

10. Examples of Virtues and the "Mean" ExcessMean Defect rashnesscourage cowardliness vanity proper prideundue humility self-indulgencetemperance'insensible'

11. The Two Kinds of Intellectual Virtue Practical Wisdom: [deals withvariable things]. Here the reasoning must be true and the desire right if the choice is to be good Philosophical Wisdom: [deals with invariable things] Contemplative in nature. Not practical nor productive. The origin ofMoral Actionis in CHOICE. • Choice cannot exist without reason or intellect, or without a moral state of character. • Good actioncannot exist without intellect and character.

12. Aristotle believes that Philosophic Wisdom is superior because The activity of reason offers pleasures that are: • Pure and enduring • Self-sufficient. • Are leisurely. .. Question: Is this a life that humans can aspire to?

13. The Ethics of Character The example of Le Chambon: • Their goodness is not Kantian or utilitarian. It came from the kind of people they were. For Aristotle the question isn’t “How should I act?”, but “What kind of a person should I be?” • This is a focus on CHARACTER rather than ACTION • Aristotle argues that in ethics we need good PERSONS as well as good ACTIONS

14. The Clash between Duty & Inclination We can understand Aristotle as an attempt to reconcile duty & inclination/reason & emotion • This is unlike Kant where the divide between reason & emotion is a key element of his ethical theory. Aristotle makes a distinction between a temperate & a continent person. • The temperate person does what is right because they WANT to [from the heart] • The continent person does what is right, but doesn’t necessarily want to. [from the head]

15. Kant & Utilitarianism Both Kant’s ethics and Utilitarianism maintain the split between head & heart. For KANT: • The moral person is close to the “continent” person. UTILITARIANISM: • Motives aren’t a factor in the “hedonic calculus.” • And everyone’s emotions count equally. • If anything OUR emotions are given less weight.

16. TEXT: The Structure of Virtues I According to Aristotle virtue is • a habit or disposition of the soul [not inborn, but acquired] • involving both feeling and action [not only action, but certain kinds of feelings] • to seek the mean in all things relative to us • where the mean is defined through reason as the prudent man would define it. [this reflects the need for both principles and persons]

17. TEXT: Aristotle on Virtue II In Aristotle’s discussion of virtue the emphasis is on CHARACTER [as a result of habits of behavior and perception], rather than individual actions • He asks what life with or without a certain virtue‘s mean, excess or defect would be like?

18. Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion COURAGE: A lack of courage can interfere with reaching our goals. • Courage rests on “rightly ordering” our fears & an accurate assessment of risk as well as “proper confidence.”

19. Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion COMPASSION: Compassion is part of recognizing the suffering of others as suffering. Compassion always involves the desire to do something. [whether possible or not] Compassion involves “moral imagination” • Compassion takes us beyond the rules. • Yet we still need good judgment. Compassion implies moral equality/pity implies inequality.

20. The Virtue of “Self-Love” Love, whether of self or other, wants to see the object of the love flourish. • Self-love involves both feelings and behaving/ acting towards ourselves in certain ways as well as self-knowledge • Love is not unconditionally positive -- it involves doing what you need to do to flourish. The excess [arrogance, conceit etc.] and deficiency [self-deprecation, self-effacing etc…] interfere with your flourishing. • Proper self-love is very important in friendship.

21. How does “Practical Wisdom” work? Practical Wisdom involves “the reflective and affective application of a general disposition to right action of some kind.” [huh?] Translation:A particular virtue [that is part of your moral character] and your conception of the “good life” come together in a certain situation guiding you to form a judgment[practical wisdom] about what you should do.

22. In Closing … Aristotle says you can’t have one virtue without the others - there is a reciprocity. • This is because virtues are connected both with practical wisdom and with human flourishing. Finally: An ethics of character helps other moral theories apply rules sensitively and, through practical wisdom, is able to balance the competing claims of utility & rights etc.