Grammar

1. Grammar Adjectives, Adverb, Verbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions

2. Here’s how you should lay out your notes: • Adjectives are ________________________ • For example: • Verbs are __________________________ • For example: • They also______________________________ • An example of this is_________________________ • Adverbs are ____________________________ • For example: • They also________________________________ • Prepositions are used in the following situations: • __________ + example • ____________ + example • ___________ + example • __________ + example • ___________ + example • ___________ + example • Conjunctions are __________________

3. Adjectives Adjectives modify nouns. To modify means to change in some way. • Adjectives usually answer one of a few different questions: "What kind?" or "Which?" or "How many?” For example: • "The tall girl is riding a new bike." Tall tells us which girl we're talking about. New tells us what kind of bike we're talking about. • "The tough professor gave us the final exam." Tough tells us what kind of professor we're talking about. Final tells us which exam we're talking about. • "Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam." Fifteen and twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam.

4. Verbs Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries (or helping verbs). Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in his writing. The six are: • Simple Present: They walk • Present Perfect: They have walked • Simple Past: They walked • Past Perfect: They had walked • Future: They will walk • Future Perfect: They will have walked

5. Present Perfect • We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. • You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. • We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

6. Examples • I have seen that movie twenty times. • I think I have met him once before. • There have been many earthquakes in California. • People have traveled to the Moon. • People have not traveled to Mars. • Have you read the book yet? • Nobody has ever climbed that mountain. • A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

7. When do you use Present Perfect? • Experience • Change Over Time • Accomplishments • An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

8. Past Perfect • FORM : [had + past participle] • Examples: • You had studied English before you moved to New York. • Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

9. When do you use Past Perfect? • Completed Action Before Something in the Past. The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. • Duration Before Something in the Past. We use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

10. Future Perfect • Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "going to have done." Unlike simple future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable. • [will have + past participle] • [am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

11. When to use Future Perfect? • Completed Action Before Something in the Future. The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future. • Duration Before Something in the Future. We use the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

12. Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. (You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, though that is not always the case.) The most common question that adverbs answer is how. • "She sang beautifully." Beautifully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang. • "The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played. Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs. • "That woman is extremely nice." Nice is an adjective that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice. • "It was a terribly hot afternoon." Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon.Terribly is an adverb that modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot. So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)

13. Prepositions One point in time: • On is used with days: • I will see you on Monday. • The week begins on Sunday. • At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day: • My plane leaves at noon. • The movie starts at 6 p.m. In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons: • He likes to read in the afternoon. • The days are long in August. • The book was published in 1999. • The flowers will bloom in spring.

14. Prepositions Place To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at. There is a wasp in the room. Put the present inside the box. I left your keys on the table. She was waiting at the corner.

15. Prepositions Higher than a point To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions: over, above. He threw the ball over the roof. Hang that picture above the couch. Lower than a point To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. The rabbit burrowed under the ground. The child hid underneath the blanket. We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches. The valley is below sea-level.

16. Prepositions Close to a point To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite. She lives near the school. There is an ice cream shop by the store. An oak tree grows next to my house The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street. I found my pen lying among the books. The bathroom is opposite that room.

17. Prepositions To introduce objects of verbs English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs. At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare • She took a quick glance at her reflection.(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.) • You didn't laugh at his joke. • I'm looking at the computer monitor. • We rejoiced at his safe rescue. • That pretty girl smiled at you. • Stop staring at me.

18. Prepositions Of: approve, consist, smell • I don't approve of his speech. • My contribution to the article consists of many pages. • He came home smelling of alcohol. Of (or about): dream, think • I dream of finishing college in four years. • Can you think of a number between one and ten? • I am thinking about this problem. For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish • Did someone call for a taxi? • He hopes for a raise in salary next year. • I'm looking for my keys. • We'll wait for her here. • You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train. • If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

19. Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together. • Example 1: Ellen wanted to take drive into the city, but the cost of gasoline was too high. • Example 2: Richard planned to study abroad in Japan, so he decided to learn the language. In the examples above, both but and so are conjunctions. They join two complete sentences with the help of a comma. And, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet can all act as conjunctions.

20. Interjections An interjections expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. Examples: ah hey oops uh-oh whew aha oh ouch well wow An interjection is often set off from the rest of the sentence by an exclamation point or a comma. An exclamation point indicates strong emotion. A comma indicates mild emotion. Examples: Ouch! That hurts! Well, I think you should apologize to her.