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Explore the concepts of population genetics, gene pools, allele frequencies, the Hardy-Weinberg theorem, mutation, sexual recombination, and the impact of natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow on population evolution.
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Chapter 23 The Evolution of Populations
Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution • One misconception is that organisms evolve, in the Darwinian sense, during their lifetimes • Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve • Genetic variations in populations contribute to evolution
Concept 23.1: Population genetics provides a foundation for studying evolution • Microevolution is change in the genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation
The Modern Synthesis • Population genetics is the study of how populations change genetically over time • Population genetics integrates Mendelian genetics with the Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection • This modern synthesis focuses on populations as units of evolution
Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies • A population is a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring • The gene pool is the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time • The gene pool consists of all gene loci in all individuals of the population
LE 23-3 MAP AREA CANADA ALASKA Beaufort Sea Porcupine herd range NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Fairbanks Fortymile herd range Whitehorse ALASKA YUKON
The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem • The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a population that is not evolving • It states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work • Mendelian inheritance preserves genetic variation in a population
LE 23-4 Generation 1 X CRCR CWCW genotype genotype Plants mate Generation 2 All CRCW (all pink flowers) 50% CW 50% CR gametes gametes come together at random Generation 3 25% CRCR 50% CRCW 25% CWCW 50% CR 50% CW gametes gametes come together at random Generation 4 25% CWCW 25% CRCR 50% CRCW Alleles segregate, and subsequent generations also have three types of flowers in the same proportions
Preservation of Allele Frequencies • In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, allele frequencies will not change
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium • Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a population in which random mating occurs • It describes a population where allele frequencies do not change
If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then • p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 • And p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
LE 23-5 Gametes for each generation are drawn at random from the gene pool of the previous generation: 80% CR (p = 0.8) 20% CW (q = 0.2) Sperm CR (80%) CW (20%) p2 pq CR (80%) Eggs 64% CRCR 16% CRCW 4% CWCW 16% CRCW CW (20%) qp q2
Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium • The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a hypothetical population • In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies do change over time
The five conditions for non-evolving populations are rarely met in nature: • Extremely large population size • No gene flow • No mutations • Random mating • No natural selection
Population Genetics and Human Health • We can use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to estimate the percentage of the human population carrying the allele for an inherited disease
Concept 23.2: Mutation and sexual recombination produce the variation that makes evolution possible • Two processes, mutation and sexual recombination, produce the variation in gene pools that contributes to differences among individuals
Mutation • Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA • Mutations cause new genes and alleles to arise Animation: Genetic Variation from Sexual Recombination
Point Mutations • A point mutation is a change in one base in a gene • It is usually harmless but may have significant impact on phenotype
Mutations That Alter Gene Number or Sequence • Chromosomal mutations that delete, disrupt, or rearrange many loci are typically harmful • Gene duplication is nearly always harmful
Mutation Rates • Mutation rates are low in animals and plants • The average is about one mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation • Mutations are more rapid in microorganisms
Sexual Recombination • Sexual recombination is far more important than mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible
Concept 23.3: Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter a population’s genetic composition • Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change: • Natural selection • Genetic drift • Gene flow
Natural Selection • Differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions
Genetic Drift • The smaller a sample, the greater the chance of deviation from a predicted result • Genetic drift describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next • Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles Animation: Causes of Evolutionary Change
LE 23-7 CWCW CRCR CRCR CRCR CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCR Only 5 of 10 plants leave offspring Only 2 of 10 plants leave offspring CRCR CRCR CRCR CWCW CWCW CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCR CRCR CWCW CRCR CRCW CRCR CRCR CRCR CRCW CRCW CRCR CRCW Generation 1 p (frequency of CR) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW) = 0.3 Generation 3 p = 1.0 q = 0.0 Generation 2 p = 0.5 q = 0.5
The Bottleneck Effect • The bottleneck effect is a sudden change in the environment that may drastically reduce the size of a population • The resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population’s gene pool
LE 23-8 Original population Bottlenecking event Surviving population
Understanding the bottleneck effect can increase understanding of how human activity affects other species
The Founder Effect • The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population • It can affect allele frequencies in a population
Gene Flow • Gene flow consists of genetic additions or subtractions from a population, resulting from movement of fertile individuals or gametes • Gene flow causes a population to gain or lose alleles • It tends to reduce differences between populations over time
Concept 23.4: Natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution • Natural selection accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in a population
Genetic Variation • Genetic variation occurs in individuals in populations of all species • It is not always heritable
LE 23-9 Map butterflies that emerge in spring: orange and brown Map butterflies that emerge in late summer: black and white
Variation Within a Population • Both discrete and quantitative characters contribute to variation within a population • Discrete characters can be classified on an either-or basis • Quantitative characters vary along a continuum within a population
Polymorphism • Phenotypic polymorphism describes a population in which two or more distinct morphs for a character are represented in high enough frequencies to be readily noticeable • Genetic polymorphisms are the heritable components of characters that occur along a continuum in a population
Measuring Genetic Variation • Population geneticists measure polymorphisms in a population by determining the amount of heterozygosity at the gene and molecular levels • Average heterozygosity measures the average percent of loci that are heterozygous in a population
Variation Between Populations • Most species exhibit geographic variation differences between gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups
LE 23-10 1 2.4 3.14 5.18 6 7.15 8.11 9.12 10.16 13.17 19 XX 1 2.19 3.8 4.16 5.14 6.7 9.10 11.12 13.17 15.18 XX
Some examples of geographic variation occur as a cline, which is a graded change in a trait along a geographic axis
LE 23-11 Heights of yarrow plants grown in common garden 100 Mean height (cm) 50 0 3,000 Altitude (m) 2,000 Sierra Nevada Range Great Basin Plateau 1,000 0 Seed collection sites
A Closer Look at Natural Selection • From the range of variations available in a population, natural selection increases frequencies of certain genotypes, fitting organisms to their environment over generations
Evolutionary Fitness • The phrases “struggle for existence” and “survival of the fittest” are commonly used to describe natural selection but can be misleading • Reproductive success is generally more subtle and depends on many factors
Fitness is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals • Relative fitness is the contribution of a genotype to the next generation, compared with contributions of alternative genotypes for the same locus
Directional, Disruptive, and Stabilizing Selection • Selection favors certain genotypes by acting on the phenotypes of certain organisms • Three modes of selection: • Directional • Disruptive • Stabilizing
Directional selection favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range • Disruptive selection favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range • Stabilizing selection favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes
LE 23-12 Original population Frequency of individuals Phenotypes (fur color) Original population Evolved population Directional selection Disruptive selection Stabilizing selection
The Preservation of Genetic Variation • Various mechanisms help to preserve genetic variation in a population