Chapter 18

1. Chapter 18 The Age of Enlightenment

2. Chapter 18 Section 1

3. The Enlightenment Scientific progress convinced Europeans of the power of human reason. In the 1700s, other scientists expanded European knowledge. Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier for example, built the framework for modern chemistry. Edward Jenner developed a vaccine against smallpox, a disease whose path of death spanned the centuries.

4. The Enlightenment If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural laws, or laws that governed human nature? Thus, the Scientific Revolution led to another revolution in thinking, which came to be known as the Enlightenment (Age of Reason) Through the use of reason, people and governments could solve social, political, and economic problems.

5. Views of the Social Contract • Thomas Hobbes set out his ideas in a work titled Leviathan.(1651) In it, he argued that people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. If not strictly controlled, they would fight, rob, and oppress one another. Life in the “state of nature”—without laws or other control—would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” 

6. Views of the Social Contract • To escape that “brutish” life, said Hobbes, people entered into a social contract, an agreement by which they gave up the state of nature for an organized society. Hobbes believed that only a powerful government could ensure an orderly society. For him, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and compel obedience.

7. Views of the Social Contract • John Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature. People were basically reasonable and moral, he said. Further, they had certain natural rights, or rights that belonged to all humans from birth. These included the rights to life, liberty, and property. 

8. Views of the Social Contract • In Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued his socialcontractthat people formed governments to protect their natural rights. The best kind of government, he said, had limited power and was accepted by all citizens (constitutionalmonarchy). Thus, unlike Hobbes, Locke rejected absolute monarchy.  • Locke then set out a radical idea. A government, he said, has an obligation to the people it governs. If a government fails its obligations or violates people's natural rights, the people have the right to overthrow that government

9. Locke Continued • Another of Locke’s works is EssayConcerning Human Understanding • Advanced the theory of tabula rasa, by which Locke believed that at birth, every human being’s mind is a blank page and all knowledge comes from experience

10. Views of the Social Contract • In 1748, Baron de Montesquieu published The Spirit ofthe Laws. In it, he discussed governments throughout history and wrote admiringly about Britain's limited monarchy. • Montesquieu felt that the British had protected themselves against tyranny by dividing the various functions and powers of government among three separate branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial.

11. Montesquieu • Still, he felt that the separation of powers was the best way to protect liberty. Montesquieu also felt that each branch of government should be able to serve as a check on the other two, an idea that we call checks and balances.

12. Views of the Social Contract

13. Philosophes Thinkers called philosophes believed that the use of reason could lead to reforms of government, law, and society. Advanced proposals for the improvement of the human condition and the reform of society

14. Voltaire • François-Marie Arouet, who took the name Voltaire. “My trade,” said Voltaire, “is to say what I think,” • He battled inequality, injustice, and superstition. He detested the slave trade and deplored religious prejudice.

15. Voltaire • Candide – satirical work- critical of religious persecution, war & superstition • Best type of government was an enlightened despot – an absolute monarch who was willing to use his authority to promote reform • Strong believer in freedom of speech • “I do not agree with a word you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it”

16. Voltaire • An advocate of Deism – the religious belief that God had created the universe and set it in motion to operate according to natural laws but no longer intervened in His creation • Deist believed in life after death • God would reward and punish according to their moral conduct during their life • Rejected fundamental doctrines of Christianity

17. Denis Diderot • Created a 28 volume Encyclopedia – emphasis on how to improve the lives of humans through practical technology • Diderot's Encyclopedia included articles by leading thinkers of the day, including Montesquieu and Voltaire. • Banned by the Roman Catholic Church and criticized by most states

18. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • The most controversial philosophe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau • Rousseau believed that people in their natural state (noble savage) were basically good. This natural innocence, he felt, was corrupted by the evils of society, especially the unequal distribution of property.

19. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • The Social Contract - “Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains” • He believed that some controls were necessary, but that they should be minimal. Additionally, these controls should be imposed only by governments that had been freely elected. – the concept of the will of the majority (general will) • Believed that an aristocracy would be best type of government to rule people (ideal would be direct democracy) • Also wrote work called Emile, study on natural education—learn by direct experience

20. Women and the Philosophes • Women did have “natural rights,” said the philosophes. But unlike the natural rights of men, these rights were limited to the areas of home and family.  • By the mid-1700s, a small but growing number of women protested this view. They questioned the notion that women were by nature inferior to men and that men's domination of women was therefore part of “nature's plan.”

21. Mary Wollstonecraft • Mary Wollstonecraft in Britain argued that women were being excluded from the social contract itself. Their arguments, however, were ridiculed and often sharply condemned. • A Vindication of the Rights ofWomen – educate girls just like boys then can they get equality • Right to vote and hold office

22. The Philosophes and Society

23. Enlightenment and Law • CesareBeccariawrote On Crimes and Punishment • Called for complete overhaul in area of jurisprudence (law)—accused should have certain basic rights • No torture to gain admissions of guilt • No capital punishment—rehabilitation ofcriminals • Punishment should be swift—punishment should focus on rehabilitation of the criminal

24. New Economic theory • Thinkers called physiocrats focused on economic reforms. Like the philosophes, physiocrats looked for natural laws to define a rational economic system. • Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire Laissez faire means allowing businesses to run with little or no government interference.

25. Economics • Support the idea of freetrade (free market)—flow of commerce without government interference (no tariffs)

26. Adam Smith– Leading Physiocrat • In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity. Smith supported laissez faire, but also believed that a government had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide public works. • Law of supply and demand, law of self-interest andlaw of competition

27. Adam Smith • A nations wealth was based on its production of goods by its farmers, artisans, and factory workers

28. Chapter 18 Section 2

29. Spread of the Enlightenment • Ideas spread quickly through the many levels of society • The educated and upper- class quickly gobbled up the pamphlets & other literature printed • The middle-class men discussed the new ideas in coffee-houses in major cities

30. Spread of the Enlightenment • Government and church officials tried to protect the old order. To defend against the attacks of the Enlightenment, they used censorship, the restricting of access to ideas and information. They banned and burned books and imprisoned writers.

31. Spread of the Enlightenment • Salons were informal social gatherings where writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas. • Originated in Paris under the direction of wealthy noblewomen • Became important in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment

32. Enlightened Despots • Frederick the Great- he saw himself as the “first servant of the state,” with a duty to work for the common good. • he had swamps drained and forced peasants to grow new crops such as the potato. • He had seed and tools distributed to peasants who had suffered in Prussia's wars. • Frederick also tolerated religious differences, welcoming victims of religious persecution. “In my kingdom,” he said, “everyone can go to heaven in his own fashion.” 

33. Enlightened Despots • Catherine the Great - read the works of the philosophes and exchanged letters with Voltaire and Diderot . • She granted nobles a charter of rights and criticized the institution of serfdom.

34. Enlightened Despots • Joseph II of Austria - Joseph traveled in disguise among his subjects to learn of their problems. • he granted toleration to Protestants and Jews in his Catholic empire. • He ended censorship and attempted to bring the Catholic Church under royal control. • sold the property of many monasteries and convents and used the proceeds to build hospitals • Joseph even abolished serfdom.

35. Arts & Literature • Art – Baroque - Baroque paintings were huge, colorful, and full of excitement. They glorifiedhistoric battles or the lives of saints. Such works matched the grandeur of European courts. • Portrait painters showed noble subjects in charming rural settings, surrounded by happy servants and pets • Rococo - Unlike the heavy splendor of the baroque, rococo art was personal, elegant, and charming. Furniture and tapestries featured delicate shells and flowers.

36. Music • Johann Sebastian Bach - wrote complex and beautiful religious works for organ and choirs.

37. Music • George Fredrick Handel – noted for his operas • most celebrated work, the Messiah, combines instruments and voices. Today, it is a standard at Christmas and Easter concerts.

38. Music • Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Child prodigy • Works include operas, symphonies, and moving religious music • Famous works include The Magic Flute & The Marriage of Figaro

39. Literature • Daniel Defoe wrote Robinson Crusoe, an exciting tale about a sailor shipwrecked on a tropical island. • In Pamela, Samuel Richardson used a series of letters to tell a story about a servant girl. This technique was adopted by other authors of the period • Jonathan Swift wrote Gulliver’s Travels – a political & social satire

40. Chapter 18 Section 3

41. England As A World Power • Location placed England in a position to control trade during the Renaissance. English merchants sent ships across the world's oceans and planted outposts in the West Indies, North America, and India. From these tiny settlements, England would build a global empire.

42. England As A World Power • In the 1700s, Britain was usually on the winning side in European conflicts. Treaty ofUtrecht, France gave Britain Nova Scotia and Newfoundland in North America. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris ending the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War brought Britain all of French Canada. The British East IndiaCompany also pushed the French out of India

43. England As A World Power • England had developed a powerful navy, which could protect its growing empire and trade. • England offered a more favorable climate to business and commerce than did its European rivals. • The union of England and Scotland brought economic advantages to both lands.

44. Growth of Constitutional Government In England • In the century following the Glorious Revolution, three new political institutions arose in Britain: • Political parties emerged in England in the late 1600s. The first political parties, the Tories and the Whigs, represented small exclusive groups of wealthy men. • The cabinet system was a group of advisers to the prime minister. They were called the cabinet because they met in a small room. Under George I (1st Hanover king) and his German-born son George II, a handful of parliamentary advisers set policy.

45. Growth of Constitutional Government In England • The Prime Minister was the leader of the majority party in Parliament and in time the chief official of the British government. Heading the cabinet was the prime minister • Robert WalpolePrime Minister from 1721 to 1742 was the first • The appearance of these institutions was part of the evolution of Britain’s constitutional government,that is a government whose power is defined and limited by law.

46. George III • George III came to power anxious to reassert royal power. He wanted to end Whig domination, choose his own ministers, dissolve the cabinet system, and make Parliament follow his will.

47. George III • Toward these ends, he: • Gave parliamentary seats to his friends and supporters. • Tried to force English colonists in North America to pay the costs of their own defense

48. George III • In 1775, George’s policies in North America triggered the American Revolution, which ended in a loss for Britain. Britain's loss of its American colonies discredited the king. Increasingly, too, he suffered from bouts of mental illness. In the crisis of leadership that followed, cabinet rule was restored in 1788.

49. Chapter 18 Section 4

50. The American Colonies By the mid 1700s, the colonies were home to diverse religious and ethnic groups. The colonists felt entitled to the rights of English citizens, and their colonial assemblies exercised much control over local affairs. the colonists shared common values, respect for individual enterprise, and an increasing sense of their own identity separate from that of Britain. Colonies served as trade links between Britain and North America, the West Indies, and Africa