1. Chemical 2. Cellular 3. Tissue 4. Organ 5. Organ System 6. Organismic

1. 1. Chemical2. Cellular3. Tissue4. Organ5. Organ System6. Organismic Human Body Organization

2. Chemical Bonds • A union between the electron structures of atoms • Atoms can have several orbiting shells that hold their electrons • the innermost shell holds a maximum of 2 electrons • the outer (or valence) shells can hold up to 8 electrons • If the outer shell is complete then the atom is not reactive • If the outer shell is not complete then the atom is reactive • It tries to fill its outer shell with the electrons from other atoms • This is the basis of Chemical Reactions and Chemical Bonds • There are three type of Chemical Bonds in the Human Body • Ionic • Covalent • Hydrogen

3. Ionic Bonds

4. Covalent Bonds

5. Hydrogen Bonds

6. Macromolecules • Are Giant Molecules of Life • All Use Carbon Atoms • Carbon has only 4 outer shell electrons • can make 4 covalent bonds • excellent for building molecules • hydrocarbons • carbon and hydrogen combinations • functional groups • attachments to carbon backbone • increase diversity • monomers • small molecules that form polymers • polymers • large molecules made up of monomers

7. Dehydration Synthesis

8. Hydrolysis

9. Metabolism • all the chemical reactions by which cells use and acquire energy. • Anabolism: • involves building of complex molecules from simple molecules • this requires energy • Catabolism: • involves the breaking down of complex molecules into smaller ones • this process results in the acquisition of energy • in the form of adenosine triphosphate or ATP • Cellular Metabolism (Cellular Respiration): • how each cell transfers glucose and oxygen into ATP

10. ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate)

11. Glucose Regulation Pancreas

12. Pancreatic Cells

13. Pancreatic Cell Physiology Glucagon Insulin

14. Pancreatic Beta Cell Glucose Triggers Insulin Release • Glucose enters cell • And generates ATP • ATP Closes K+ channels • And opens Ca++ channels • Ca++ untethers Insulin • Allowing Insulin Release

15. Mitochondria Anatomy Inner Compartment Outer Compartment Inner Membrane Outer Membrane Cytoplasm Cristae

16. Cellular Respiration - Summary Input: + 6 O2 Four Steps: 1. Glycolysis 2. Pyruvate Oxidation 3. TCA Cycle 4. Electron Transport Chain Output: 6 CO2 6 H2O 32-34 ATP

17. 1. Glycolysis • first step in cellular respiration • occurs in the cytosol • does NOT require O2 • input is: • 1 glucose molecule • 2 ATP molecules • output is: • 2 pyruvate molecules • 4 ATP molecules • 2 NADH molecules • 2 H+ ions • yield is: • 2 pyruvate molecules • 2 ATP molecules • 2 NADH molecules • 2 H+ ions

18. 2. Pyruvate Oxidation • requires O2 • input is: • 2 pyruvate molecules • output is: • 2 acetyl CoA molecules • 2 CO2 molecules • 2 NADH molecules • 2 H+ ions • yield is: • 2 acetyl CoA molecules • 2 CO2 molecules • 2 NADH molecules • 2 H+ ions

19. 3. KREBSCycle • requires O2 • input is: • 2 acetyl CoA molecules • output is: • 9 biochemical reactions • yield is: • 2 ATP molecules • 4 CO2 molecules • 6 NADH molecules • 6 H+ ions • 2 FADH2 molecules • 2 GTP molecules

20. 4. Electron Transport Chain • requires O2 • input is: • 10 NADH molecules • 10 H+ ions • 2 FADH2 molecules • output is: • 10 NAD+ molecules • 2 FAD+ molecules • 32-34 ATP molecules • yield is: • 32-34 ATP molecules

21. Other Glucose Modifications Glycolysis Glycogenesis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis from lipids Gluconeogenesis from proteins

22. Absorptive (Fed) State

23. Postabsorptive (Fasting) State

24. Diabetes Mellitus • Type I (IDDM): Juvenile Onset (childhood and puberty) • Insulin-Producing cells are impaired • Greatly reduced or absolute deficiency of insulin • Polydipsia (excessive thirst) • Polyphagia (excessive eating) • Polyuria (excessive urination) • Type II (NIDDM): Maturity Onset (usually >40) • Risk increases with age and excessive weight (80% are obese) • 90% of all Diabetes cases • Can often be maintained with diet and exercise • Insulin-Producing cells are functional • Cells may make enough or too much insulin

25. Table 4-7, p. 122