Schools of Psychology Dr.Hussein AL-Ghamdi

1. Schools of PsychologyDr.Hussein AL-Ghamdi

2. With the independence of psychology, several schools such as Structuralism, Functionalism, and Gestalt were established. However, these classic schools failed to explain human behavior and personality, Therefore, these schools are considered in today-psychology as an important step in the evolutionary history of psychology. Today, several main forces are dominant. These forces are psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, and cognitive psychology. Structuralism: Structuralism, the first classic school, was founded in Germany by W. Wundt. He was influenced by the atomic theory, which stated that complex substances could be analyzed into their component elements. Accordingly, he believed that the subject of psychology was the content of the conscious mind that can be reported through analytic introspection. Wundt concluded that conscious experiences combine three basic elements: sensations, images, and feelings. Sensations are experiences of stimuli perceived by senses; images are sensation-like experiences produced by the mind, and feelings are the emotional aspects of one’s experiences. The major drawbacks of this school are its focus on the structure of the mind rather than on the overt behavior, its ignorance of the functionality of the mind, and finally its use of introspection, which is dependent on one’s subjective report of his experiences.

3. Functionalism: Functionalism, the first protesting reaction to structuralism, was founded by William James in the late 19th century within the context of Darwin’s theory. He emphasized the mental processes, particularly, how they function to help people adapt to their environment. Therefore, he argued that consciousness is personal, evolving, selective, and adapting. In early 1900s several psychologists such as Dewey, Angel, Carr, and Robinson, were influenced by James. Although, they disagreed with one another on many issues, they were strongly united in their opposition to structuralism. They also shared the following beliefs: Mental processes should be studied as a system and cannot be analyzed to elements. In fact, mental activity is not the total of our perceptions. Mental processes should be seen as adaptive processes that help individuals to adjust to their environment. In addition to informal introspection, research methodology should depend on the scientific methods such as observation and experimentation. Psychological knowledge should be applied to practical matters such as education, law, and business. Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt school of psychology was founded in 1912 by Wertheimer, Kofca, and Kohler as a protest against the structuralists’ and behaviorists’ methods of reducing experiences into small component parts such as sensations (Wundt) or conditioned reflexes (Watson). In contrast, gestalt psychologists emphasized the organizational processes of perception. They particularly, studied perception through a method called phenomenology, whereby a subject uses the naïve introspection technique. They arrived to the conclusion that behavior and experiences are not compounds of simple elements but rather patterns or organizations which are controlled by several laws such as closeness, similarity, and so forth. Although the Gestalt school is not one of the dominant perspectives in today-psychology, it was an important step in the development of cognitive psychology.

4. Radical Behaviorism: Behaviorism was originated in the United States by John Watson (1878-1958), who rejected most classic notions such as the functionalists’ acceptance of introspection as a method of analysis, the view of the conscious and unconscious mind as a subject of psychology, and also the existence of instinctual tendencies. In contrast, Watson, developed his theory (science of behavior) depending on the following principles: Overt behavior, which can be scientifically observed and measured, is the subject of psychology. All different types of Behavior are shaped by environmental stimuli. Behavior should be studied through scientific and objective methods, such as observation and experimentation. Complex behavior can be analyzed into its components. Learning occurs as a result of the frequent contingencies between natural and unnatural stimuli. Watson’s theory initiated new theories called neo-behavioristic theories, such as those of Gathery, Hall, Tolman, Miller, Dolard, and Skinner. Skinner’s theory of operant learning is the new version of the radical behaviorism. Skinner focused on the operant behavior, which is defined as a learning process in which frequency of a specific response is shaped by the consequences of the response.

5. Social Cognitive Learning During the 1960s, the radical behaviorism started their decline as one of the main forces in psychology. As a result, Bandura introduced to psychology his theory of social cognitive learning, which is based on a multi-causal perspective called “reciprocal determinism”. According to this notion, one’s behavior and personality resulted form the dynamic interaction among the environmental, personal, and behavioral variables. In this complex model, Bandura arrived to the following principles that control human behavior and personality: Observational learning and modeling: This principle states that most of our behaviors are formed by observing other models’ behaviors and their negative or positive outcomes. However, one’s performance is controlled by other variables, such as the behavior’s value, the model’s attractiveness, one’s self efficacy, and one’s practical successe in forming the modeled behavior. Cognitive processes: Learning does not occur as a direct response of observing others. In fact, learning requires several mental and behavioral steps These steps are: attention, retention, motivation, behavior performance Reinforcement: In addition to the external reinforcement, Bandura emphasized the importance of two other types of reinforcement. These types are: Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is one of the most important notions in Bandura’s model It refers to one’s beliefs in his ability and efficiency in a particular field . These beliefs are controlled by its reciprocal relationships to all other variables in the model including one’s mental process, behavior, and environment. Vicarious reinforcement and learning: According to this notion, Learning occurs naturally through one’s observation of other’s behavior and its negative or positive outcomes. Behavior and performance: Behavior is not a static result of the previous variables. In fact, the progress of gaining behavior depends on the reciprocal relation between different variables including the behavior itself, which means that one’s performance of behavior is affected by his previous performance of that behavior.

6. Classic Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis was established as a method of psychotherapy developed by Freud as a result of his clinical practice. However, during his life, Freud evolved his notions and discoveries to a complex theory of personality, which is considered the first force in today-psychology. The main remarks of Freud’s theory are: Biological determinant: At the beginning, Freud emphasized the importance of the pleasure principle in shaping human personality. However, late in his life, he reformulated his theory. In his book, Beyond the pleasure principle, Freud proposed that human personality is determined mainly by two instincts, Eros and Thanatos. Eros is the life instinct which includes the libidinal urges (sexual urges). Thanatos refers to the death instincts (aggression). These two instincts compete against each other. According to Freud, it is Eros or the life-giving urges that are most important for the child’s development. He believed that death instincts are rarely observable in a pure form. It can only be inferred from the observation of its aggressive tendencies. The victory of the life instincts over the death instincts succeeds by turning the destructive impulses outward toward others and thus accounts for the aggressiveness in human behavior. Conflicting Structures of mind and personality: Freud divided the personality into three conflicting parts or constructs: the id, which is controlled by the pleasure principle, consists of the basic biological impulses; the ego, which is controlled by reality principle, works to cope with stress in the environments and mediates between the contrasting desires of the id and the reality and also the super-ego demands; and the super-ego, which represents the dictates of one’s conscience (controlled by conscience principle) . Freud also divided the mind, depending on one’s awareness of his experiences, to conscious mind, sub-conscious mind, and unconscious mind. Stages of Development: Human psychosexuality develops through five stages. These stages are oral, anal, oedipus, phallic, and adolescent stages. It is during the Oedipus stage, that individuals develop their Oedipus complex, which refers to the child’s love of the parent of the opposite sex and the hostility to the other. Neurotic disorders and psychotherapy: The early frustrating experiences, such as parental aggression and denial, prevent the normal resolution of the Oedipus complex. In this case, unacceptable desires moved to one’s unconsciousness through the ego defense mechanism called “repression”. These repressed experiences or desires continue their trial to express themselves. Therefore, more ego defense mechanisms developed to insure the repression of these wishes. However, these mechanisms do not end the problems, since anxiety may still be active. In fact, ego defense mechanisms are neurotic symptoms of one’s inner conflicts. Therefore, psychotherapy should be directed to the inner conflict, rather than to the symptoms. The purpose of the treatment is to help patients to free the repressed experiences, and to deal consciously with them. This usually can be achieved through the free association.

7. Neo-Freudians As a result of Freud’s rigid emphasis on sexual instincts, and also his ignorance of ego-functionality as an adapting agent, Jung and Adler established their own theories. Jung developed his theory of analytical psychology, in which he focused on the collective unconsciousness and its contents of conflicting archetypes such as persona, anima, animus, shadow, and self. Adler, in his theory of individual psychology, emphasized the importance of one’s feeling of inferiority and his or her endeavor to achieve dominance and superiority. Despite the failure of these two theories in reducing the dominance of the Freud’s ideas, they were essential steps toward a new form of psychoanalysis. Another movement was achieved by Several neo-Freudians such as Horny, Fromm, and Sullivan who were known as social psychoanalysts. In general, they emphasized the importance of social variables in forming human personality. These variables include the family attachment (Horney), the socioeconomic status (Fromm), and the individuals’ interpersonal relationships (Sullivan). In recent-psychoanalysis, object-relation theory , and ego development theory became dominant. Object-relation psychoanalysts such as Mahler, Klien, and Bolss believed that human personality development is controlled by the nature of one's relationship to the love-object. In contrast, ego psychoanalysts such as Anna Freud, Kout, White, Hartman, and Erikson, focused on the development of adaptive ego through the interaction between inner and outer (environmental) variables. Erikson, for example, recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory, but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. He believed that human development is directed by the epigenetic principle. According to this principle, human development is controlled by the interaction between one’s biological, social, and personal variables. Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages that individuals encounter throughout their life-span. In each stage one experiences a particular crisis that can be resolved positively or negatively depending on the nature of the interaction between the above-mentioned factors. These stages are: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust, occurs from birth to one year; 2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, occurs between ages two and three; 3. Initiative vs. Guilt, occurs between ages four and five; 4. Industry vs. Inferiority, occurs between six years and puberty; 5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion; 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation, occurs during young adulthood; 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation. occurs during middle adulthood; 8. Integrity vs. Despair, occurs during late adulthood.

8. Existential and Humanistic Psychology: Both Existential and Humanistic schools of psychology were the natural evolution of the Existential philosophy. Therefore, the similarities between these two schools are greater than the differences. Both schools emphasized the important of subjective meaning of life, the wholeness of experiences, and human ability form his life and limit the effect of environmental and biological determinants. May , whose notions represents the Existential psychology, defined Psychology as “the study of a particular person in a particular time with a particular circumstances” through the Phenomenological method, by which the experiences as a whole without dividing it to elements. He also emphasized the importance of the balance between the different modes of one existence. These modes are “unwelt (interaction with the physical worlds), mitwelt (the interaction with other persons), and eigenwelt (one’s interaction with himself or herself)”. Alienation: Individuals may experience the sense of alienation when one is spirited from one or more of the modes of existence. Freedom and Responsibility: refers that one should have the freedom to chose the meaning of his existence, and should be accept the responsibility of his choice s and their outcomes. Humanism in the other hand was established by Maslow and Rogers. In 1962, both along with many other humanstically oriented psychologists established the American Association of Humanistic Psychology that operated in accordance with the following principles: The primary study of psychology should be the experiencing person. Free choice, creativity, and self actualization are the concern of the humanistic psychologist. Only personally and socially significant problems should be studied. The main object of psychology should be the dignity and enhancement of people. Both Maslow and Rogers believes that human beings strive actively and continuously to adjust and to control their environment, and to improve their life. Self- actualization in Maslow’s theory, or “the fully functioning person” is the final aim of individuals. Maslow defferntates between two kinds of motivation, the need-based-motivation, and the being motivation. He believes that self-actualizing individual are motivated by the being motivation and values such as truth, simplicity,

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19. Schools of Psychology