Write down on the post it note any key terms associated with observations

1. Write down on the post it note any key terms associated with observations

2. Component 01 Research Methods C/W 1.1 Observations L.O: To be able to explain the different research methods and their associated strengths and weaknesses.

3. How will you know that you have made progress this lesson? Progress Criteria REVVING UP I can evaluate the strengths/weaknesses of Event and Time Sampling. ACCELERATING I can apply event and time Sampling and Behavioural Categories and Coding Frames to an observation. GOING STRONG I can identify the features of Observational research.

4. Key terms – Which are you unsure about? • Observation • Structured observation • Unstructured observation • Naturalistic observation • Controlled observation • Covert observation • Overt observation • Participant observation • Non participant observation • Event sampling • Time sampling • Inter rater reliability • Coding frames • Behavioural categories REVVING UP

5. Observation Observation: where a researcher observes and records participants’ behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables. REVVING UP Stretch and Challenge: Psychology is the scientific study of what? What can’t we observe?

6. Observation • Observations can be used as part of an experiment. • I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look. • I'm using an observation as part of my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV). REVVING UP IV: Cold Primary method: experiment Secondary technique: observation IV: Hot

7. Observation If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying out observation research, not an experiment. REVVING UP Primary method: Observation No IV Stretch and Challenge: if there is no IV or manipulation, what can’t be established?

8. Observational Studies • Still use the same sampling methods • Volunteer, self selected, random, snowball • Still have the same ethical issues • CDCDWP • Respect, competence, integrity REVVING UP

9. Ethical Issues Invasion of privacy • Confidentiality should be respected. • Public places: people expect to be seen by others. • C D C D W P (respect, integrity, confidentiality). • Need to know how you can address ethical issues. COVERT OBSERVATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY BREACH INFORMED CONSENT ETHICS BECAUSE YOU CAN OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT CONSENT IN AREAS WHERE THEY EXPECT TO BE OBSERVED ! !

10. Features of an observation • There are things we need to know about observations: • Structured/unstructured • Naturalistic/controlled • Covert/overt • Participant/non-participant • Event sampling/time sampling • Use your textbooks to identify the definitions, features and strengths and weaknesses of the different types of observation.

11. Structured/unstructured Structured Unstructured Recording everything observed during the observation: Increases validity Applicable to a wide range of contexts Harder to record Harder to establish reliability Open to observer bias • Using predefined coding categories for behaviour : • Easier to record • Easier to establish inter-rater reliability • Reductionist • Can reduce validity • Open to observer bias

12. Naturalistic/controlled Naturalistic Controlled This technique involves a situation being contrived by the researcher. Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting. Think of examples where you have seen the use of controlled observation. Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using controlled observation. • This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment. • It’s often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables. • Think of examples where a naturalistic observation may be useful… • Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using naturalistic observation.

13. Covert/overt Covert Overt Participants do know they are being observed: Reduces ethical issues Social desirability/demand characteristics Decreases validity • Participants do not know they are being observed: • Increases validity • Less social desirability/demand characteristics • Ethical issues Stretch and Challenge: What ethical issues are associated with covert observation? Why would an overt observation decrease validity?

14. Participant/non-participant Participant Non-participant The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing: Easier to remain objective No influence on behaviour Less ethical issues Can’t observe certain behaviour Less detail and accuracy • The researcher is involved with the people they are observing: • Only way to observe behaviour (cults/gangs) • Greater accuracy and detail • Harder to remain objective • Can influence behaviour, reducing validity • Ethical issues

15. Task • Complete Activity 1: Observation Types question • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRq1AhFAN-4 • Identify the types of observations used in this clip.

16. Event and time sampling • Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening. • So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour: • Event Sampling: every occurrence of behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified period of time • Time Sampling: behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds) ACCELERATING Note: this kind of ‘sample’ has nothing to do with participants!

17. Observation Task • We shall now practise observations. • Structured observation with time sampling • Structured observation with event sampling Time sampling group: you also need to come up with behavioural categories or coding frames of anticipated behaviours (max. six), but you must also agree on a pre-agreed schedule of when you will observe and how for how long each time (e.g. every two minutes for ten seconds). Event sampling group: you need to come up with behaviour categories or coding frames of anticipated behaviours (max. six) and you will be tallying every time you see an instance of the behaviours on the coding scheme. Stretch and Challenge: is this a participation or non-participant observation?

18. Compare your findings • Think about how you could present them graphically. • Are there any major differences between your results? If so, why do you think that is? • Is there anything you would change? Why / why not? • What are the difficulties of event sampling and of time sampling? • Do you think it would be easier to conduct an unstructured observation? Why / why not?

19. Event and Time Sampling Evaluation Time Sampling Event Sampling Less likely to miss predefined events Increases validity and reliability Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once Can miss events not coded for • More representative over time • Easier, more reliable observations • Can miss important events GOING STRONG

20. Complete the checklist to identify your confidence rating on experiments.

21. Component 01 Research Methods C/W Coding Frames and behavioural categories in observations L.O: To be able to explain how data is recorded during observational research and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses.

22. How will you know that you have made progress this lesson? Progress Criteria REVVING UP I can evaluate the strengths/weaknesses of inter-rater reliability. ACCELERATING I can explain the difference between a coding frame and a behavioural category and suggest examples of coding frames. GOING STRONG I can describe what behavioural categories are and suggest 3 examples.

23. Designing Observations – Behavioural Categories • Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs. • Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of: a) A student doing their homework? b) A child in a room with toys? c) A teacher in a classroom? • Pair work –What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories? REVVING UP

24. Designing Observations – Coding Frames • Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different sub-type within a category. • Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching • Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK, Severity of strength of the Kicks–K1,K2,K3,K4,K5 • Task – for the previous behavioural categories, list some coding frames. ACCELERATING

25. Inter-rater Reliability • Inter-rater reliability: researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way. • If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests: • the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity • they’re not observing the same event. • Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability; they have to agree first. • What are the advantages and disadvantages of inter-rater reliability? GOING STRONG

26. Advantages • See how people behave rather than how they say they behave. • Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e.g. behaviour in prisons. • Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research. Stretch and Challenge: If you’ve already done an observation and can predict the results will be what kind of hypothesis would you have? GOING STRONG

27. Disadvantages • Difficult to replicate • Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour • No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect • Observer bias • Observer effect • Time consuming and requires careful preparation GOING STRONG

28. How can we increase validity and reliability in observations? • To increase validity: • Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect) • Double blind observations to reduce observer bias • Clearly operationalised coding system. • To increase reliability: • Clearly operationalised coding system • Check inter-rater reliability • Train researchers to use coding system • Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories. GOING STRONG

29. Conducting an observation • In groups you are going to carry out an observation. • You may decide which type of observation you will conduct and for which type of behaviour. • Conduct your observation and collate your findings. You will need to produce a report for peer review. GOING STRONG