Cross-Cultural Differences in Development

1. Cross-Cultural Differences in Development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

2. Outline • Introduction • Parenting Practices • Infant Development • Moral Development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

3. Development • Ontogenetic Development: Development of an individual across the lifetime • Development occurs as the interaction between: • Biology • Environment Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

4. Cultural Transmission • Cultural Transmission: Passing on culture to the next generation though teaching/learning • Observational Learning (Social Learning) • Guided Participation • Types of cultural Transmission • Vertical Transmission: From parents to offspring • Horizontal Transmission: From peers • Oblique Transmission: From other adult and institutions Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

5. Cultural Transmission • Enculturation: Individual learns cultural practices simply by being encompassed in a culture • Socialization: Deliberate teaching of cultural practices • Enculturation and socialization result in behavioral similarities within cultures and differences between the cultures • Acculturation: Cultural transmission from a secondary culture Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

6. Theories of self • Independent view of self: Personal distinctness, emphasizing unique personal attributes Interdependent view of self: Individual is fundamentally connected to other people, individual interests are secondary to group needs Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

7. Six Dimensions of Child Rearing (Barry, Bacon & Child, 1957) • Obedience Training: Degree to which children are trained to obey adults • Responsibility Training: Degree which children are trained take responsibility for tasks • Nurturance Training: Degree to which children are trained to care for the younger siblings and others • Achievement Training: Degree to which children are trained to strive for standards of excellence in performance • Self- Reliance: Degree to which children are trained to be independent of the assistance from others for supplying their own needs and wants • General independent training: Degree to which children are trained toward freedom from control, domination, and supervision Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

8. Parenting Ethnotheories • Parenting Enthnotheories: Knowledge and beliefs about the domain of parenting • Beliefs, values, and practices of parent about the proper way to raise a child • Affection and warmth between parents and children • Amount of time breastfeeding • Development: When a child walks, talks, chooses friends • Why children misbehave and how to discipline • Amount of talk to children • Sleeping patterns Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

9. Parenting Ethnotheories • Videotapes of children in preschool in Japan and USA were shown to teachers (Tobin, Wu, & Davidson, 1989) • Perspectives on class size: • US: Disapproved of the large responsibility on teachers by having a large number (30) of children in Japanese classrooms • Japanese: Disapproved of the small class size in the US because children would be unable to learn from others • Perspective on misbehavior: • Japanese: Children did not develop a healthy dependency on their mother. • US: Children had inherent problems Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

10. Parenting Ehtnotheories • Conclusions • Parents and other caretakers influence their child’s development through socialization practices based on their cultural beliefs • Parents reflect the standard and expectations of their cultural environment in: • How they treat their children • How they perceive social situations • Parents do not tend to realize the extent to which they direct their children into cultural practices Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

11. Infant Development • African Infant Precocity: African babies develop considerably faster in motor skills than Euroamerican babies (Gerber & Dean, 1957) • Losing reflexes, holding up head • Study Characteristics: • Different doctor to diagnose in different cultures • Limited to babies weighting more than 2500g • Follow-up studies found that African Infant precocity was slightly exaggerated Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

12. Infant Development • Comparison of Milestones • African babies sit up and walk about 1 month before Euroamerican babies • Euroamerican babies crawl before African babies • Cultural factors that may in influence infant development: • Amount that mothers work in late pregnancy • Anesthesia during birth • Massaging babies • Vertical position of baby while mother works • Conclusion: There is a link between parental ethnotheories, cultural parental practices, and infant development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

13. Parenting of Infants • Intuitive parenting practices: Cross-cultural similarity in parenting of infants • Attempt to capture and maintain the infant’s attention • Exaggerating facial expression • Motherese: Higher pitch and larger variations in pitch when speaking to infants Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

14. Parenting of Infants • Speech to children • Affect-salient speech: Songs, nonsense expressions, and incomplete statements • Empathize with needs of infants • Information-Salient speech: provide information about the environment with a child • Encourages individual expression Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

15. Parenting of Infants • Frequency of mothers in western Kenya holding their infants had positive correlation with the child’s affective disposition at 12 years (Keller & Eckensberger,1998) • Frequency of mother-holding did not influence cognitive performance • Domain-specific consequences for early experiences • Conclusion: Different parenting practices do not have general development consequences, but the outcomes are specifically related to the parenting practices Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

16. Attachment of Children • Attachment: Deep emotional bond developed between an infant and its primary caretaker • Attachment is the result of interactions between an infant and the mother • Secure attachment allow the child to explore the environment • Secure attachment to one primary caregiver is necessary for social and emotional development • Secure attachment assessed by the Strange Situation • Cross- Cultural equivalence of Strange Situation is questionable • Many societies use multiple caregivers Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

17. Play • Children playing is culturally universal • Functions of play: • Promote cognitive development • Symbolism, Language use, problem solving, role-playing, creativity • Promote social development • Friendship, Social competence, Emotional maturity Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

18. Play • Cultural differences in play • Amount of time children spent playing • Age at children stop playing • Sibling involvement in play • Adulthood involvement in play • Children in complex cultures play more and play with more complexity Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

19. Play • Chinese children spent more time playing with other children whereas American children spent more time playing individually (Haight,Wang, Fung, Williams, & Mintz, 1999) • When playing with toddlers, Japanese mothers focus more on social interactions while American mothers use play to teach knowledge of the world. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

20. Ecology and Child Rearing • Pastoral and Agricultural societies are high in food accumulation • Hypothesized to be highly conscientious, compliant, and conservation • Hunting and Gathering societies are low in food accumulation • Hypothesized to the highly individualistic, assertive, and venturesome • On a scale of compliance-assertion (Barry, Child, and Bacon, 1959) • Of the 23 societies ranking high in compliance, 20 were high food accumulating • Of the 23 societies ranking high in assertion 19 were low food accumulation Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

21. Gender Difference in Child Rearing • Girls tent to be socializes more towards: • Obedience • Responsibility • Nurturance • Boys tend to be socialized more towards: • Achievement • Self-Reliance Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

22. Gender Differences in child Rearing • Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) • www.yale.edu/hraf/home.htm • Describes 863 cultures across the world • Universal Gender Rearing practices • Males: Self-assertive, Achievement-Oriented Dominant • Females: Socially responsive, Passive, Submissive • Research has found that these gender rearing practices are: • Almost universal • Almost never reversed • Size of gender differences range from very large to very small Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

23. Gender Differences in Child Rearing • Universals in Division of Labor • Women tend to prepare food and care for children • Differences in Division of Labor • Degree to which women contribute to subsistence (Schlegel & Barry, 1986) • Women tend to have high contributions in agriculture and gathering societies • Women tend to have low contributions in animal husbandry, intensive agriculture, fishing, and hunting societies Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

24. Gender Differences in Child Rearing • Women’s participation in subsistence tend to affect: • Adaptive Mechanisms • Polygyny, Bride-price, Birth control, Work training for girls • Attitudes toward women • Females relatively highly valued • Females allowed freedom • Less likely to viewed as object for male needs Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

25. Child Rearing Conclusion • Some child-rearing practices are similar across all cultures • Child-rearing also differs from one society to the other • Universalist Perspective Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

26. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Kohlberg stated that development of moral reasoning follows same sequence in all cultures • Differences in the rate of development and number of people who reached the highest levels • Cross-Cultural studies have provided support: • Invariance of the sequence of stages • First two level of reasoning of found in many societies • No evidence for post-conventional stage in any village cultures • Post-conventional reasoning appears to only result from complex urban societies Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

27. Moral Development • Research from other paradigms have found evidence: • Alternative post-conventional moralities based on natural law, justice, or family orientation as opposed to individualism • Right-based vs. Duty-based orientation Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

28. Development Conclusion • The development of a child is influenced by: • Physical and social settings • Social interactions and environmental conditions and dangers • Child-care customs • Cultural practices and institutions • Caretaker psychology • Beliefs, values, and practices of parents • Different practices can promote or constrain development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

29. Revision • Explain the six dimensions of child rearing . • Explain the concept of parental ethnotheories and how they can influence development. • What are some common and different parenting practices across cultures? • Explain how the three perspectives on cross-cultural psychology (absolutism, universalism, and relativism) relate to Attachment Theory and Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos