Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.

2. Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue. evaluate examine explain

3. Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence. describe discuss distinguish

4. Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout. compare contrast compare and contrast

5. Give a detailed account including reasons or causes. evaluate examine explain

6. Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation. state to what extent outline

7. Sociocultural Level of Analysis:Social and Cultural Norms Part I

8. Norms • Norm – set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave.

9. Social Learning Theory • AlbertBandura social learning theory assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning. • Observationallearning – people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.

10. Social Learning Theory • According to Bandura, social learning theory involves the following factors: • Attention – the person must first pay attention to the model. • Retention – the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. • Motorreproduction – the observer has to be able to replicate the action. • Motivation – learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.

11. Social Learning Theory Retention Attention Social Learning (modeling, imitation) Motivation Motor reproduction

12. A norm is a set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual should not behave.

13. Which one of these is not a factor involved in social learning theory determined by Bandura? motivation retention attention duration motor reproduction

14. Motivation Factors • There are several factors which may influence whether or not the observer decides to imitate and learn: • Consistency – if the model behaves in a way that is consistent across situations then the observer will be more likely to imitate than if the model behaves in different ways depending on the situation. • Identification with the model – there is a tendency to imitate models who are like ourselves.

15. Motivation Factors • Rewards/punishment –Bandura argues that people can learn from observing what happens to others; they don’t have to experience the consequences themselves. This is called vicariousreinforcement in Bandura’s theory and happens when we watch people around us – whether in reality or in movies (observationallearning).

16. Motivation Factors • Liking the model – warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated than cold, uncaring models. • A study by Yarrow et al. (1970) showed that children learn altruistic behavior (helping others for no personal gain) better from people with whom they have already developed a friendly relationship than from people they do not know.

17. Albert Bandura • Albert Bandura (1925 – present) joined department of psychology at Stanford University in 1953 and stayed there until he retired. His famous experiment involved the use of a Bobodoll and aggression in children. Social learning theory changed the direction of psychology and continues to be very influential in all areas of psychology. .

18. Application of social learning theory in real life • Social Learning theory has been used to explain many things but particularly the role of violence in the media on aggression in children. • Studies shows that by watching aggression (violence on TV), children learn how to be aggressive in new ways and they also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring them rewards or punishment.

19. Huesmann and Eron (1986) • longitudinal study, monitored children’s behavior over 15-year period. They found a positive correlation between the number of hours of violence watched on TV by elementary school children and the level of aggression demonstrated when they were teenagers. They also found that those who watched a lot of TV violence when they were 8 years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults.

20. Application of social learning theory in real life • Kimball and Zabrack (1986) carried out in Canada, children were found to have become significantly more aggressivetwo years after TV was introduced to their town. • TV is not always a negative influence. There is a strong evidence that children's shows (Sesame Street) can help children learn positive behaviors such as empathy, sharing, and academic curiosity.

21. Application of social learning theory in real life • Bandura’s social learning theory is the basis for several TV and radiodramas which aim to prevent unwanted pregnancies, reduce the spread of HIV, promote literacy, and empower women in developing countries. This is called the Sabido method. • Broadcasting of soap opera Twende na Wakati (Let’s Go with the Times) in Tanzania between 1993 and 1996, researchers found increases in safe sex, women’s status and family planning.

22. Evaluation of Social Learning Theory • Social learning theory helps explain why behaviors may be passed down in a family or within a culture. • Also explains how children can acquire some behaviors without trial-and-error learning.

23. Evaluation of Social Learning Theory • Criticism: Children that see a behavior demonstrated, may not exhibit that behavior for sometime. • Because of this gap, it is difficult to establish 100% that the behavior is the result of observing the model. • The model doesn’t explain why some people never learn a behavior, in spite of seeing the model. • People are motivate role models and their own beliefs and previous experience.