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MEMORY and learning

This interactive lecture explores the definition of memory and its processes, including encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses the three types of memory - episodic, semantic, and procedural - and the stages of memory - sensory, short-term, and long-term. The lecture also covers how long-term memory is organized, the processes of remembering and forgetting, and the concept of learning and behavior.

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MEMORY and learning

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  1. MEMORY and learning Interactive lecture IV Jolanta Babiak Winter semester 2018/2019

  2. DEFINITION OF MEMORY processes that enable an individual to encode, store and retrieve information type of information processing Ability to store and retrieve information

  3. THREE MEMORY PROCESSES • Encoding: the first step in data processing – information about the environment reaches us in the form of stimulus (physical, chemical). When we encode we change this data into psychological form - a representation of visual, semantic, audio coding • Storage: storing information over time • Retrieval: enables to gain access to information stored earlier; some information gets retrieved in a split of a second, “automatically”; however complex information, large amount of data, information which is not well comprehended may not be so swiftly retrieved

  4. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY • Episodic memory • Stores the specific events that are personally experienced – e.g. what you’ve had for breakfast today, whom you first met on the way to school, coffee you had with your friends – time and situation (context) forms the cues to retrieve this information • Depending on how this information was encoded you may or may not be able to retrieve it from your memory • In regards to episodic memory we rather say “I recall that….” • Semantic memory • relates to the meaning, understanding of the process, event, concept or information, e.g. the capital of France, names of Russian Tzars, author of Hamlet • Information from semantic memory is “I know that….” • Proceduralmemory • Knowledge howthingsgetdone–process, e.g. riding a bike, swimming, typing, holding a pen • It isverystable and functions for yearsevenif not used

  5. WOHEAOR

  6. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY • Sensory memory, e.g. iconic – the first stadium information goes through; memory trace of visual stimulus gets wiped out after a second • Short-term memory – not a particular place information goes to, but a mechanism of focusing cognitive resources in a set of mental representations – e.g. trying to remember phone number; information lasts about one minute in this memory • Primacy effect – better memory for items at the start of a list; we are used to pay special attention to elements that are located at the start of the information piece • Recency effect - improved memory for items at the end of the list – it is the end of the piece of information • Interference – makes information disappear from our STM • Shallow and deep information processing – type of attention we pay to information at the time of encoding • Long-term memory – our storehouse – our total knowledge of the world and of the self • Some scientists propose that this LTM stores everything we experienced, but we might not be able to access this information because we either have no cues to retrieve it or we repressed it to subconscious

  7. How is our long term memory organized • Our brain tries to function in the most economical mode • We categorize stimuli • We store information in hierarchy • Adequate organization of information helps in retrieving process • “Tip of a tong” effect – most probably the process of encoding and storing was disturbed • Context-based memory – retrieving vivid memories when put in the same context while experiencing specific events • State based memory – physiological or psychological states – viscous circle effect

  8. Remembering and forgetting • We don’t we remember – we reconstruct information: putting together information based on more general knowledge stored • That’s why our memories might be distorted and not resemble the real experience or event that actually happened • Eyewitness memory – vulnerable to distortions by post-event information: acquiring new information that can interact with the original memories

  9. Learning and behavior • Organisms learn from their experiences • Behavioral change is a consequence of learning • Learning cannot be observed directly, but improvement in performance is an outcome of learning • Anything that is learned is demonstrated in rather consistent change in behavior • Experience is necessary for learning to occur • Learning is studied through experimental studies, over time

  10. Behaviorist school of thought • Behaviorism (John Watson) – scientist cannot rely on data drawn from introspection, because it is too subjective. Observable behavior is the answer • Radical behaviorism (B.F. Skinner) – behavior is not caused by mental events, such as thinking, memorizing, recalling – these are behaviors that are caused by environmental stimuli • Behavior analysis – discovering environmental determinants of learning and behavior

  11. Habituation and sensitization • In simplest learning, behavior changes when new stimulus is presented repeatedly • When an organism is habituated to a stimulus his reaction decreases as the stimulus is repeatedly presented; habituation is very functional • When an organism is sensitized the reaction increases

  12. Classical conditioning • The organism learns a new association between a stimulus that is initially neutral – stimulus 1 and • A stimulus of some significance to the organism – stimulus 2 • Behavior (conditioned response) gets induced by a stimulus (conditioned stimulus) that has become important to the subject because it’s become associated with biologically significant stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) • Ivan Pavlov had observed that learning may result from two stimuli associated with each other

  13. Classical conditioning, cont. • Reflex responses e.g. salivation, pupil contraction, eye blinking • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – one that elicits unconditioned behaviors • Unconditioned response (UCR) – behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned stimulus (CS) – neutral stimulus • Conditioned response (CR) – a response resulting from pairing UCS and CS

  14. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning • acquisition – conditioned response (CR) is first produced, increases in frequency over repeated trials; Conditioned stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned stimulus have to co-occur several times in order for conditioned stimulus (CS) causes conditioned response (CR) to happen • In order for the organism to acquire the conditioned response (CR) the pairings of conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) must be systematic • The organism perceives the CS and UCS as related if they are presented closely enough in time

  15. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning • Extinction – when the conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer precedes unconditioned stimulus (UCS) conditioned response becomes weaker over time and reaches a point when it stops occurring • It appears that conditioned responses (CR) are not a permanent aspect of an organism’s behavior • Spontaneous recovery - CR will appear in a weak form again if presented with conditioned stimulus • Savings – an organism require less time to relearn the reaction if pairs of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus are presented again, that means extinction has only weakened performance and did not wipe it completely

  16. Conclusions about the basic process of classical conditioning • Stimulus generalization – the more similar the new stimulus to the original one (CS) the stronger the response will be (child and dog example) • Stimulus discrimination – process by which organisms learn to react to stimuli which are similar to the original stimuli only in some dimensions

  17. Robert Rescorla further experiments • Tone (CS), shock (UCS): the tone reliably predicted the presence of a shock – additional requirement for classical conditioning to occur • Also it CS must be informative in the environment • A stimulus is noticed when it stands out: it is intense and contrasts with other stimuli

  18. Real life situations of classical conditioning • Classically conditioned responses are built on automatic emotional reactions • Fear conditioning – Little Albert experiment by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner; ethical issues – learned fear reaction is difficult to extinguish • Traumatic events can condition people to cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions – even for a lifetime; car accidents, bombings, earthquakes • Responses of happiness and joy are also instances of classical conditioning; advertisement

  19. Summary of classical conditioning • In classical conditioning learning takes place when stimuli acquire new meaning as they signal more important events • Two stimuli are presented together, with no requirement for the learner to do anything

  20. Assigned reading • Gerrig, R. J. (2012). Psychology and Life, New Jersey, Pearson Education, Inc. – chapter 5 • https://www.ted.com/talks/antonio_damasio_the_quest_to_understand_consciousness#t-368519

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