Major groups of Pests

1. IV) Order Heteroptera (Hemiptera): It contains the following pests of insect species: 1)Cotton Lygus (Lygus vosseleri; Fam: Miridae = Capsidae): - Hosts: Cotton as the main crop; Sorghum, Sesame, various wild & cultivated legumes as alternative hosts. It was recorded from 14 different families. - Damage: damaged plants are tall & straggly with very short side branches; the leaves are holed, ragged & tatered. Small flower buds turn brown then shed. Very young bolls with black spots on their walls then shed. - Pest status: A major pest of cotton in East Africa but in other areas, damage may be rare & sporadic. Sorghum is the most alternative host because of the large population build-up when the grain is in milky stage & as the grain ripens, the bug make mass migration onto nearby cotton. - Life history: Eggs are small (0.75 mm long) & test tube shaped. 1 Major groups of Pests

2. It is completely inserted into the soft tissues of host plants. Hatching occurs 8 days after laying. The full-grown nymphs (4 mm long) have egg-shaped & pale green body. The legs are fairly long & slender. There are 5 nymphal instars & development of all nymphal stages takes 17 days. Adult bug (4 mm long) has brown color with a greenish tinge and with the hind part of the wings bent sharply over the end of the abdomen. Adult female may live for 40 days & lays 60 eggs. - Distribution: Tropical Africa from west to east and Madagascar. Other species of Lygus attack cotton in the USA & other crops in Europe & Asia. - Control: recommended insecticides for controlling these pest are Trichlorophon & Carbaryl. 2) Cotton seed bug (Oxycarenus hyalinipennis ; Fam. :Lygaeidae): - Hosts: Cotton as the main host; Okra & other Malvaceae, persimmon etc. as alternative hosts. - Damage: The lint of the opened boll is stained & of bad quality. 2 Major groups of Pests

3. The seeds show brown discoloration & severe shrinking. Seed germination is severely reduced. - Pest status: it is an important pest of cotton affecting boll & weed quality. - Life history: Eggs are creamy, oval in shape & 1.2 mm diameter. They are laid singly or in a small group between the seeds in open bolls. One female can lay 25-40 eggs & incubation takes 4-10 days. There are 5 nymphal instars taking 2-3 weeks for development. Adults are small elongate bugs with pointed heads with 4 mm long & 1.5 mm wide. They are dark brown to black color, red abdomen & translucent hemilytra. Whole life cycle can be completed within 3 weeks. 3-4 generations / year in each crop ripening. - Distribution: in cotton growing areas in continental Asia, Egypt, Middle East, India, Indo-china & The Philippines. It is introduced accidently in Brazil. - Control: When the bugs are seen on half-opened bolls, plants 3 Major groups of Pests

4. should be sprayed with Carbaryl or with any other dust insecticides. 3) Leaf-footed plant bug or Squash bugs (Leptoglossus australis ; Fam.: Coreidae): - Hosts: Cucurbits as main hosts; Citrus, ground nut, many legumes etc. as alternative hosts. - Damage: The young fruits show dark spots where feeding punctures have been made. Many infested immature fruits fall prematurely & the terminal shoots are attacked by this bug and may wither & die beyond the point of attack. Similar damage is seen on Citrus fruits & most feeding sites become infected by fungi. - Pest Status: common pest & widely distributed but not a very serious pest. It is fairly polyphagous in their habit. - Life history: The adult is a large, brown bug (20-25 mm long) with a characteristic tibial expansion on the hindlegs (resemble the foot). Antennae have alternating black & pale-orange zones. The developmental time for one generation in Java takes 40 d. 4 Major groups of Pests

5. - Distribution: Canary Islands, Central & East Africa, Madagascar , India, Sri Lanka, Burma, South East Asia, South China, Phlipinnes, Indonesia, West Iran & North Australia. - Control: Chemical control using Lindane (BHC) & Parathion are effective against these bugs when their number is high. 4) Coconut bugs (Pseudotheraptus spp., Fam. Coreidae): - Hosts: Coconut as the main host; Cashew, Cassava, Mango, rubber, guava, cocoa as alternative hosts. - Damage: Infestation with this bug causes early nut drop in East Africa. Young nymphs feed in the developing spadix at the base of the male flowers or in the main stem & young branches which are still succulent . Older nymphs & adults tend to feed more on developing nuts & female flowers. Necrotic spots on attacked tissues especially young nuts appear due to the toxic saliva secreted by the bugs so that these nuts dry and killed. - Pest Status: serious pest of coconut in East Africa because they cause early nut fall due to necrosis resulting from bug feeding 5 Major groups of Pests

6. although 70 % of nut fall is due to the natural fall. Two bugs per tree can cause appreciable damage. - Life history: Eggs are laid singly in the flowers or on young nuts (70-100 eggs / female). 8-9 days are needed for hatching. There are 5 nymphal instars taking 33 days to complete their develop-ment at 24.5 deg. C. The adults are medium sized bugs, brown color with 9 days of pre-oviposition period. 9 generations per year are produced. - Distribution: Found in Africa (East, West & Central). - Control: Presence of the naturally predatory ant (Oecophyla longinoda) nests in coconut palm trees prevents the attack of coconut bug on these trees. Infested coconut palm trees with the bug can be sprayed with dieldrin to kill adults & nymphs of this bug. 5) Harlequin bugs (Antestiopsis spp.;Fam.: Pentatomidae): - Hosts: Brassica spp. as the main hosts; beet, groundnut, potato, mallow, cotton & millet as alternative hosts. 6 Major groups of Pests

7. - Damage: Both adults & nymphs are feeding on the foliage of crop hosts so leaves attacked wilt & dry. Young plants often die completely. - Pest status: A major pest of crucifers in many parts of the world. - Life History: The eggs are white, at first, but later turn orange. They are laid in clusters either on the leaves or sometimes in the soil. > 100 eggs may be laid per female during a period of 2-3 wks. Incubation period of eggs = 5-8 days. Developmental time of nymphs (5 nymphal instars) = 2-3 wks. Adult bugs have a shield shape, 5-7 mm long & 3-4 mm wide. The dorsal surface has a mixture of black, white & orange markings (hence harlequin bugs). 3-4 wks are needed for the life cycle & several generations per year are produced. - Distribution: Antestiopsis hilaris is found East Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, Zimbabwi, Zaire, South Africa, Italy, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Burma & South Russia. Antestiopsis cruciferarum in East Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Afgani- 7 Major groups of Pests

8. stan & South East Asia. - Control: by destruction of all cruciferous weeds will help in preventing a population build-up. Some effective insecticides are used for control of these insects as DDT, BHC, Carbaryl etc… 6) Green Stink Bug or Green Vegetable Bug ( Nezara viridula; Fam.: Pentatomidae):Hosts: vegetables, legumes & cotton as main hosts; many other crops & ornamentals as alternative hosts. Polyphagous: recorded from 100 different host plants. - Damage: Death of the attacked leaves & fruits due to the necrosis & spotting caused by feeding & effect of toxic saliva secreted by the bugs. - Pest Status: A common & worldwide pest. Sometimes, it is serious & found regularly on a wide range of crops in the warmer part of the world. - Life History: Adults hibernate in winter time among vegetables in the cooler regions. They emerge in the spring to mate then lay eggs. Eggs are barrel-shaped (1.2 x 0.75 mm dimensions) & laid 8 Major groups of Pests

9. in clusters under the leaves. Females lay 100-300 eggs / female. The nymphs are orange & brown in color (5 nymphal instars). The development of this type of bugs is generally slow: 6-10 weeks from egg laying to adult emergence. The threshold temperature for the development = 20 deg. C & 3 generations / year are produced in the mediterranean region. Adults are large green bugs (15-18 mm long & 8-10 mm wide) but some of them are brownish rather than green in color (not common). - Distribution: Cosmopolitan in warmer regions of the world (from south Europe & Japan to South Africa & Australia). - Control: Biological control using the egg parasitoid Teleonemus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). It was introduced into Australia to control this pest. Chemical control is not often required but may be used if numbers are high such as using Phorate, Malathion, Dimethoate, Phosphamidon etc. 9 Major groups of Pests

10. V) Order Thysanoptera: It contains the following pests of insect species: 1)Coffee thrips (Diarthrothrips coffeae; Fam: Thripidae): - Hosts: Coffee as the main host; it can breed on large number of plants but one wild host (Vanguoria sp.) was recorded as alternative host. - Damage: the attack damages the undersides of leaves and in severe cases the upper sides. Also, berries & green shoots are damaged. Irregular gray or silvery spots or patches may be seen on damaged organs. Death of leaves & total & total leaf-fall may occur at heavy infestation. - Pest Status: Severe outbreaks occurred in Kenya on coffee trees since 1950 in hot weather during Feb. & March. - Life history: eggs (minute, kidney-shaped) were inserted into the leaf tissues. Nymphs (2 nymphal stages) are cigar-shaped tiny insects, pale-yellow and just visible to the naked eyes. They 10 Major groups of Pests

11. move on the undersides of the leaves. At the end of the nymphal stage, the nymphs drop to the ground then covered with an earthen cell then transform into pre-pupae then pupae before giving the adult stage. Emerged adults crawl out of the soil then fly back into the tree & feed with the nymphs. Adults are larger than nymphs (1.5 mm long), they have gray-brown color & feather-like wings. In hot weather, one generation takes 3 wks. - Distribution: East Africa, Malawi and Zaire. - Control: Mulching reduces thrips numbers considerably and its widespread use is a reason for declining the importance of this pest. Chemical control of this pest using fenitrothion or oxyd-emeton methyl etc. is effective in dry conditions & when the numbers > 2 per leaf (adults & nymphs). 2) Cotton thrips or flower thrips (Frankliniella schulzei; Fam.: Thripidae): - Hosts: Cotton, beans, groundnut as the main crops; many other crops & flowers as alternative hosts. 11 Major groups of Pests

12. - Damage: Adults & nymphs feed in flowers & on leaves of many plants especially in legumes. They rasp the cells off the upper surfaces of young leaves while they are still in the bud, & these leaves become distorted. Seedling growth may be retarded by several weeks & yield can be seriously affected. Mature plants are little affected by thrips. - Pest status: This type of thrips is important on groundnut and beans in many parts of the world. Although it is common in flowers, no actual damage is usually recorded. It is a vector of virus disease diseases on bean. Under the Australian conditions, 90% of yield reduction was recorded due to the attack of these viruses on bean. - Life history: Eggs are laid in the leaf tissues. Nymphs (3 nymphal instars) are pale-colored & wingless. They are found under the curled leaves. Pupation takes place in the soil. Emerged adults (1.0-1.5 mm long) are dark brown or black with paler bands across the abdominal segments. The life cycle takes 2-3 wks. 12 Major groups of Pests

13. - Distribution: found in East Africa & in the Sudan. Several other species of Frankliniellaare found on a similar range of hosts in Africa, Asia & America. - Control: using both contact & systemic insecticides against this type of thrips on groundnut such as BHC dust, Malathion, Phorate & Dimethoate sprays. 3) Banana thrips (Hercinthripsbicinctus, Fam.: Thripidae): - Hosts: Banana as the main host; on many greenhouse crops as alternative hosts. - Damage: Silvery or brown patches covered with small black spots on fruits. The skin of severely infested fruits may crack & this allows the secondary agents of fruit rot to attack the fruits. - Pest status: A serious pest of banana if high-grade fruit is being produced. The damage is on the outer part of the skin (as blem-ishes) but it is of little significance on the local market. - Life history: eggs are inserted into plant tissues (in the fruit skin). Nymphs are yellowish in color but abdomen appears black 13 Major groups of Pests

14. and swollen due to presence of liquid excreta. Full grown nymph has 1 mm long. Pupation takes place in the soil. Emerged adults have dark brown color with 1.5 mm long. - Distribution: Africa, South Eroupe, Australia, Hawai, North & South America and West Indies. - Control: Chemical control with the following effective insecti-cides: Phosphamidon & Fenitrothion. 4) Citrus thrips (Scirtothrips aurantii ; Fam.: Thripidae): - Hosts: Citrus spp. as the main hosts; over 30 indigenous trees & shrubs were recorded in South Africa. - Damage: A ring of scaly, brownish tissue around the stem end of the fruit. Irregular areas of scarred tissue on other parts of fruit. Young leaves may be damaged. - Pest status: a serious pest at low altitudes where an attempt to produce unblemished fruits is being made. - Life History: Eggs are bean-shaped (< 0.2 mm long) and inserted 14 Major groups of Pests

15. into the soft tissues of the leaves, stems and fruits. Hatching takes 1-2 weeks. Nymphs (2 nymphal instars) have yellow to orange color, cigar-shaped and just visible to the naked eye. They feed on young fruits from petal-fall until they are about 25 mm in diameter. Feeding takes place at the stem end, under & near the button. In the absence of suitable fruits, young leaves may be attacked. Nymphal period lasts 8-15 days. Fully-grown nymphs then pass in pre-pupa & pupa (duration = 1-2 weeks). Adult thrips (< 1 mm long). Males are rare & reproduction is parthenogenetical. Adult females may live for several weeks. - Distribution: Known in Africa, Egypt, Malawi, Sudan, East Africa, Zimbabwi and most common in South Africa. - Control: Spray the fruits towards the end of a main flowering period when ¾ of the petals have fallen using a water solution of lime-sulfur. The spray should be repeated after 10 days. 5) Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci; Fam.: Thripidae): - Hosts: Onion & Leek as the main hosts; Tobacco, Tomato, 15 Major groups of Pests

16. Cotton, peas, beet & other crops as alternative hosts. - Damage: the leaves of attacked plants are silvered & flecked. Heavy attacks lead to the wilting of young plants. On cotton seedlings, the damage is more serious causing leaf shedding. Onion leaves are often distorted & sometimes die when attack is heavy. Occasionally, entire crop may die. - Pest Status: a polyphagous pest on many crops and a vector of virus diseases on tobacco, tomato & other crops. - Life history: Eggs are laid in notches in the epidermis of the leaves & stems of young plants. They are white & need 4-10 days for hatching. Both nymphs & adults rasp the epidermis of leaves & suck the sap that exudes. Nymphs molt 2 times in about 5 days, they are white or yellow. Pupation occurs in the soil & takes 4-7 days. The adults are small (1 mm long), yellow-brown in color with darker transverse bands across the thorax & abdomen. They live 3-11 weeks. One generation takes 3 weeks & several generations per year (5-10 in the tropics) are produced. 16 Major groups of Pests

17. - Distribution: Cosmopolitan but only few records from West Africa. The range of existence is from Canada & Scandinavia to South Africa & New Zealand. - Control: * using parasitic Hymenoptera (some species of Eulophidae); * Ploughing after crop harvest to kill pupae hiding in the soil & adults hiding in the leaf litter; * Chemical control by soil application of DDT or HCH OR GRANULAR INSECTICIDES AS Phorate or Euradan; * Foliar spays with Dimethoate or Fenitrothion to kill nymphs. 17 Major groups of Pests

18. VI) Order Coleoptera: It contains the following pests of insect species: 1)Chafer Grubs (Schizonycha spp.; Fam: Scarabaeidae): - Hosts: wheat, maize, sugarcane, sorghum, groundnut, sun-flower & many other crops and weeds. - Damage: The larvae are soil dwellers & damage the roots of many crop plants & the pods of groundnut. Organic matter in the soil is attractive to adult beetles. Adults do a certain amount of damage to foliage but this is generally important. - Pest Status: A fairly important pest on many crops in Africa. These grubs are polyphagus & found throughout the world causing serious damage to crops. - Life History: Eggs are laid in the soil with high organic matter content. The larvae are white, fleshy, with a curved or C-shaped body & swollen abdomen & well-developed thoracic legs. The larval stages takes 6 months. Pupation takes place in the soil in 18 Major groups of Pests

19. an earthen soil for about 14 days. Emerged adults are shiny brown cockchafer of about 15 mm long & nocturnal in habits. The life cycle takes 7 months & there is only one generation per year. - Distribution: in east Africa, Sudan, Egypt etc. - Control: * Deep ploughing will kill a number of larvae & pupae by exposure either to sunlight & predators. * Seed dressing or soil treatment with Aldrin, Dieldrin, Heptachlor, BHC were effective. * Biological control using “Digger Wasps” that put their eggs in the soil & hatched larvae penetrate the soil & then parasitize the chafer larvae. 2) Dried Fruit Beetle (Carpophilus hemipterus; Fam.:Nitidulisae): - Hosts: Primary pest on dried fruits especially currants, raisins, dates & figs as the main hosts; but in the field as secondary pest in cotton bolls, maize cobs as alternative hosts. In stores, they also attack cocoa, beans & groundnut. - Damage: Both adults & larvae feed on dried fruits causing direct 19 Major groups of Pests

20. damage & their frass causes spoilage of attacked fruits. They transmit fungi to damaged & ripe dates & can cause serious crop losses. - Pest Status: a serious pest on dried fruits in the warmer parts of the world. - Life History: Little is known about its life cycle but the eggs are laid amongst the dried fruits. Hatched larvae and then emerged adults feed on dried fruits. Larvae are campodeiform in shape, white or yellow in color. Adults are small, flat beetles, 3-4 mm long with characteristic yellow patches on the elytra & 2 terminal abdominal segments that are uncovered by the elytra. - Distribution: Cosmopolitan & extending up into northern parts of Europe & North America. - Control: The normal practice to protect the dried fruits is the general warehouse fumigation at certain intervals of time which effectively controls all pests of stored products insects present at the time of fumigation. 20 Major groups of Pests

21. 3)Saw-toothed Grain Beetle or Merchant Grain Beetle (Oryzaerhilus spp.; Fam.: Silvanidae): - Hosts: Oryzaerhilus beetles are general feeders & usually secondary on stored products. Their actual diet consists of fragments of animals & plant debris. For example, O. surinamensis is more frequently found on cereal products but O. mercator on oil-seed products. - Pest Status: are common in their occurrence & are widespread in their distribution. Because of their small size, they can easily hide in small crevices & are easily transported. - Life History: The entire life cycle takes place in the stored produce. Egg development takes 4-12 days & female lays 300-400 eggs. The larvae are free-living & only spend part of their time within the grain feeding on the germ. Higher humidities (60-90% RH) are preferred for larval development which takes 12-20 days. Pupal period takes 5-15 days. The adults are small beetles (2.5-3.5 mm), narrow, flattened, red-brown with 21 Major groups of Pests

22. 11-segmented antennae & 6 large lateral teeth on each side of prothorax & three low longitudinal ridges on the dorsal surface. - Distribution: Cosmopolitan in their distribution in food stores & godowns. O. mercator is more tropical. - Control: * Since these species can not breed at temperatures < 18 deg. C, they can be easily controlled by cooling the grain to < 18 deg. C. * Fumigation of food stores with methyl bromide is particularly effective against the adult beetles. Aluminium phosphide & a mixture of ethylene dichloride & carbon tetrachloride are both commonly used in farms. * Insecticides recommended as sprays in case of large infestation are Malathion, Fenitrothion & BHC. 22 Major groups of Pests

23. 4)Flour beetles (red & confused) (Tribolium confusum & T. castaneum ; Fam.: Tenebrionidae ): - Hosts: Stored cereals, meals and flours as main hosts; Many types of stored foodstuffs as alternative hosts. - Damage: Both larvae & adults feed on damaged grain & their fragments or on their byproducts such as flour. Infestations are indicated by the presence of the small, brown adult beetles in the grains /grain products. - Pest status: Serious pests in stored flours, meals & processed cereals; also serious secondary pests in stored grains throughout the world. - Life history: the eggs are small, white, sticky & cylindrical & laid scattered in the stored produce. Hatching takes 5-12 days & 400-500 eggs were laid per female. Larva resembles small white mealworms with brown head & 2 upturned brown pointed structure on the last abdominal segment. In stored grain, the larvae live inside the grain & are responsible for most damage. 23 Major groups of Pests

24. At 25 deg. C, larval development takes about 25 days but at lower temperatures, several months may be required. Pupation takes place inside the damaged grains & takes 10-17 days. The pupa has brown color. The adults are small, flattened, oblong & reddish-brown beetles (3-4 mm long). Its elytra are ridged. They are long lived & may live for 1-2 years & can exist for 1 month without food. They are active & can fly especially in late afternoon. In dense population, the adults are canibalistic & eat eggs & young larvae. - Distribution: Cosmopolitan throughout the warmer parts of the world but T. confusum tends to be more temperate. - Control: Intact grain, uninfested by primary pests is generally safe from attack by Tribolium . Infestation by these species is very common & sometimes treatment is needed by fumigation with methyl bromide or sulfur dioxide or Phosphine. This treatment is effective against adults & larvae. 5) Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica; Fam.: Bostrychidae): 24 Major groups of Pests

25. - Hosts: stored cereal grain as the main hosts; may attack grain products such as flour & other foodstuffs. Pulse grain may be attacked - Damage: punchuring and eating of the grains & food material. Within grains, endosperm region is preferred so the attacked kernels (if not entirely consumed) are not able to germinate. - Pest Status: A serious pest on stored grains & other food stuffs worldside, a primary insect pest of stored grain by penetrating them causing serious damage. - Life History: The female lays 200-250 eggs between the grains of produce or in cervices of store house. More eggs are laid at high temperatures & oviposition may continue for 4 months. Hatching may occur in few days. Larvae (with 3 larval instars) are white in color & parallel-sided with a small head & prominent thoracic legs. Larval development takes 17 days at 34 deg. C & 70% RH on wheat. Pupation usually takes place inside the damaged grain & takes 3 days at 34 deg. C & 70% RH. Adults are small (2-3 mm) dark cylindrical beetles with the head hidden under a large 25 Major groups of Pests

26. hooded tuberculate prothorax. Antennae are 10-segmented with a club shaped (enlargement of the last three segments). The elytra have rows of punctures on their surfaces & apically, they are rounded but with no ornamentations. Adults are long lived & feed extensively or largely & fly quite well. They are usually observed inside the infested grains together with the larvae. The complete life cycle takes 3-4 weeks at 34 deg. C & 70% RH. - Distribution: It is basically tropical species but it is cosmopolitan throuhgout the warmer regions of the world & in heated stores in temperate regions. - Control: Population monitoring for this pest is important in the control. This is done by sieving & spear sampling as the adults & larvae tend to be sedentary & do not move much in the infesta-tions. Fumigation using methyl bromide or sulfur dioxide or phosphine for the infested grain. Pirimiphos-methyl & various pyrethroids are effective pesticides that could be used against this serious insect pest. 26 Major groups of Pests

27. 6)Bean Bruchid (Acanthoscelides obtectus ; Fam.: Bruchidae): - Hosts: Beans of various species as main hosts; other pulse crops as alternate hosts. - Damage: The adult & larvae bore into grains & get inside so infested seeds have mature larvae or pupae inside. Infested seeds have a small window with an emergence hole (2 mm diameter) for the adult emergence. - Pest Status: A serious pest of beans worldwide especially in tropical regions. - Life History: Infestation with this pest starts in the field when the female oviposits on the ripening pods in the field. The tiny larvae are dirty white to pale yellow with a dark brown head, strong mandibles & rudimentary legs. They bore their way into the seed & feed inside. The presence of mature larvae or pupae can be recognized by a small circular windows on the bean seeds. The life cycle is completed inside the seeds & the adult beetles emerge by pushing the window which falls off leaving 27 Major groups of Pests

28. a hole (2 mm diameter) used by adult for going out. The number of eggs laid per female = 40-60 eggs. Total period for the life cycle = 4-6 weeks at 28 deg. C & 70% RH. - Distribution: Widely distributed in Europe, Africa, New Zeraland, USA, Canada, Central and South America. - Control: * Chemical control by mixing bean seeds with gamma- BHC dust or spraying them with Pyrethroids insecticides. * Fumi-gation of bean seeds may be also effective. 7) Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata ; Fam.: Chrysomelidae): - Hosts: Potato as the main host; Eggplant, Tomato & some other cultivated & wild solanaceae. - Damage: Adult & larvae feed on the leaves. A heavy infestation results in skeletonization of plants & a severely reduced yield up to 50% loss. Defoliation may take place. A characteristic black & messy excrement is left on the attacked leaves. - Pest Status: A serious pest of potato & other solanacous crops in 28 Major groups of Pests

29. Europe & USA. This beetle & its larvae can eat large quantities of potato leaves causing skeletonization of attacked plants. - Life History: Eggs are orange-yellow laid in batches on the undersides of leaves. Each female lays 500-800 eggs throughout the summer period. Hatching requires 4-6 days. Larvae are brown then become bright-pink with 2 rows of black spot laterally. They generally stay on the same plant & full-grown larvae (12 mm long) burrow into the soil to pupate inside earthen cell (duration 5-16 days). The 1st generation appear in July but the 2nd generation remains in the soil & hibernates during winter at 10-25 cm depth. Adults (10-12 cm long) are round beetles with alternating black & yellow stripes along the elytra. They fly during spring & their spring dispersal flights are 2-5 km. - Distribution: Endemic in western USA on wild solanacae, it spreads then on potato cultivated in these regions. It was also recorded from throughout USA, Southern Canada, Mexico & Costa Rica then in 1922 established in France then most Europe 29 Major groups of Pests

30. except UK. - Control: * Spraying using low volume spray (ULV-spray) of azinphos-methyl, Carbaryl, DDT, Phosphamidon on the foliage of plants. * Injecting the soil with D-D mixture or metham-sodium to kill the pupae & resting adults. 8) Banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus ; Fam.: Curculionidae): - Hosts: all Banana varieties (Musa spp.) as the main host; Cocoa as the alternative hosts. - Damage: The larva bores irregular tunnels in the rhizomes & pseudostems at the ground level. The tissue at the edge of the tunnels turns brown & rots. If the stem is small, the infestation may cause plant death. - Pest Status: A major pest of banana throughout the tropics. In some areas, it is still spreading. - Life History: The eggs are laid singly in small pits made in the pseudostems near ground level by the female weevil. Eggs are oval & white in color with 2-3 mm long. Hatching occurs within 30 Major groups of Pests

31. 5-8 days. Larvae are white, legless with a brown head. Larval development takes 14-21 days. Pupation takes place in holes made by the larvae in the pseudostems (period = 5-7 days) & the newly emerged adults weevils are brown turning almost black after few days. Their normal food is the dead or dying banana plants & they do not fly and may live up to 2 years and lay 10-50 eggs / female. They are nocturnal in habits. - Distribution: This insect is pantropical. - Control: * Cultural methods are the most important to keep the population level down. These methods include using clean suckers , cutting off the old stems at the ground level and good weed control. * Using successful insecticides such as Aldrin & Dieldrin applied as dust around the bases of pseudostems or applied to cut surfaces of the rhizomes before covering with soil. * Dipping suckers (suspected of being infested) before planting in dieldrin solution. This may kill the small developing larvae. 31 Major groups of Pests

32. 9) Alfalfa (Clover-leaf) weevil (Hypera = Phytonomus spp.; Fam.: Curculionidae): - Hosts: Alfalfa, Clover, Trefoils as the main hosts; Other leguminosae as alternative hosts. - Damage: Larvae feed on the exposed tips of foliage at night by eating flower buds, stem tips and leaf lamina. In seed crops, the destruction of flower buds by the insect is important. Adults make small feeding holes in the leaves. - Pest status: This insect is a serious pest of forage legumes in temperate regions & injury is usually most severe in dry seasons. - Life History: Eggs (200-800 eggs / female) are laid in the spring in holes eaten in the stems or buds by the females (1- 40 eggs/hole). Incubation takes 2-3 weeks. Hatched larvae feed in situ inside the stem for 3-4 days then they move to shoot tips where they feed on folded leaflets & buds. Later, they feed on opened leaves & may eat all the lamina except for the main veins. Larval development takes 20-60 days. Body color is 32 Major groups of Pests

33. greenish. Pupation takes place in a spun cocoon either in the foliage or in the soil (duration = 3 wks). Adults are small weevils (3-6 mm long), grayish-brown in color with distinctive longitudinal striping & short snout. Young adults emerge then feed on the foliage for a while before hibernating in a sheltered location. Adults begin activity in March & April (in Europe) and feed on foliage for a time before starting to lay eggs. Number of generations /year =1. - Distribution: * Clover leaf weevil (H. nigrirostris) is distributed in Europe, Japan, Canada & USA; * Alfalfa weevil (H. postica) distributed in Europe, Asia, North Africa, Canada & USA; * Trefoil leaf weevil (H. punctata) in Europe, Canada & USA; * Clover head weevil (H. meles) in Canada & USA. - Control: * Biological control since these weevils are heavily parasitized & also attacked by a fungus important for regulating numbers; * Chemical control using effective insecticidal sprays 10-14 days after the 1st cut & before flower buds appear. 33 Major groups of Pests

34. 10) Red palm or Red stripe weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus ; Fam.: Curculionidae): - Hosts: Date palm, Oil palm, Coconut as main hosts; Other species of Palmae as alternative hosts. - Damage: The feeding larvae bore in the crown of the palm & may destroy it. At the beginning of infestation, the outer leaves turn chlorotic & die then gradually spreads to the innermost leaves. Later, the trunk becomes tunnelled & weakened & may break. - Pest Status: A serious pest on coconut & oil palm in South East of Asia. Also, serious pest on date palm in the areas of date palm production of the world. - Life history: “eggs “are laid in the crown of the palm often in holes made by other insects or by man. Sometimes, females may actively search for cut petioles as oviposition sites. Each female lays 200-500 eggs & hatching takes place after 3 days. “Hatched larvae” are yellowish-white & legless with a reddish-brown head. Full-grown larvae have 5-6 cm long. They penetrate, at first, the 34 Major groups of Pests

35. crown then most parts of the upper trunk making tunnels of up to 1 m long. They are voracious feeders & the damaged tissues turn necrotic & then decay resulting in a characteristic unplea-sant odour. As the galleries become more extensive, the trunk weakens & may be easily broken or decapitated. The larval period lasts 2-4 months. “Pupation” takes place under the bark of infested trees and completely developed larvae are surround by a cocoon (80 x 35 mm dimension). Pupal stage lasts 14-28 days. “young adults “ remain in the cocoon for 8-14 days before emergence. “Emerged adults “ (30-35 mm long) are reddish-brown weevils with either spots or red stripe on the thorax. - Distribution: in many Asian countries especially in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, South East Asia, China, Taiwan. - Control: * Using cultural control methods (e.g. elimination of breeding sites by restricting physical injury to plants) to decrease the population size; * Recommended insecticides are Aldrin & Dieldrin applied to crowns & trunks of infested palms; *Injection of insecticides (Carbaryl) into the infested galleries. 35 Major groups of Pests

36. VII) Order Diptera: It contains the following species of insect pests: 1)Mediterranean Fruit Fly or Medfly (Ceratits capitata ; Fam: Tephritidae): - Hosts: Stone fruits such as peach, plum, nectarine etc., Citrus fruits as the main hosts; Subtropical fruits as guava, mango etc. - Damage: Eggs are laid inside the fruits & maggots bore through the fruit while feeding; often associated with fungal & bacterial rots; severely attacked fruits often fall. - Pest status: a very serious pest of many subtropics & deciduous fruits. Many countries have legislation to control accidental introduction of this pest. - Life history: Eggs are laid in groups, under the skin of the fruit by the female’s protrusible ovipositor; each female lays 200-500 eggs, incubation period = 2-3 days. The maggots bore through the pulp of the fruit as they feed & develop; they are white & typically muscoid in appearance. Typically, 10-12 maggots per fruit, but sometimes up to 100 have been recorded. The larval 36 Major groups of Pests

37. instars take 10-14 days under warm conditions. Pupation takes place in the soil under the trees in a thin brown puparium because infested fruits fall when the larvae leave to pupate. Pupal period takes 14 days. The adult fly (5-6mm long) is brightly decorative with red/blue iridescent eyes & the body is blackish with yellow & white markings. Female flies sexually mature after 4-5 days of emergence & first eggs are laid at 8 days after emergence. Adult flies feed on sugary foods & may live for 5-6 months. Life cycle takes 30-40 days under warm conditions. 8-10 generations were produced per year. - Distribution: essentially subtropical species but recorded throughout Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa, South Western Australia, Hawai & Central and South America. - Control: *Collection & destruction of all infested fruits; *The maggots are can not be easily destroyed because they are inside fruits but some success is claimed for the systemic insecticide Fenthion; *Use of protein bait sprays (20 g protein solids + 10 g malathion per liter of solution) & sex attractants; *Sterile insect 37 Major groups of Pests

38. release method (SIRM) where male flies can be sterilized using gamma raysthen released in the field. 2)Olive Fruit Fly (Dacus oleae ; Fam: Tephritidae): - Hosts: Olive (all varieties both cultivated & wild) as the main hosts. - Damage: infested fruits fall prematurely. Before falling, infested fruit become mottled with a hollowed interior inhabited by a white maggot. Early damage shown as slightly sunken brown necrotic spots. No damage on the stone of the fruit due infestation with the fly. Yield can be reduced as much as 80-90% & the oil produced from attacked fruits is inferior & has unpleasant flavor. - Pest Status: It is the most serious pest of olive in the mediterranean region & 30% of crop may be lost is common in this region. - Life History: The female fly lays a single egg on the young olives (about the size of pea grain). Usually one egg is laid per olive 38 Major groups of Pests

39. fruit but if several maggots are found in one fruit, they come from eggs laid by different females. The egg is deposited under the skin of the fruit. Hatching takes 2-3 days. The larva (maggots) are ranging from 1 to 6 mm long according to their age. Larval development takes 10-15 days according to the temperature. During the summer, pupation takes place in fruits but the last generation maggots pupate in the soil under the tree where they overwinter at the depth of 5-10 cm. The adults (5 mm long) are small, dark-brown flies with hyaline wings aith a small dark terminal spot. Female flies have a prominent ovipositor. The complete life cycle takes 4 wks in summer & 3-4 generations /year are produced. - Distribution: in the Mediterranean region, Canary Island, Pakistan, Egypt, Ethiopia & South Africa. - Control: Owing to the site of oviposition under the fruit skin, only systemic insecticides are effective against the larvae (maggots) such as methyl parathion. In Greece, they control this insect using 4-12% protein hydrolysate bait sprays. These sprays also Major groups of Pests

40. contain malathion at a rate of 10 g /Liter. This viscous spray attract & kill the adults if sprayed onto plants.These sprays should be repeated (2-3 treatments per season). * There are other types of fruit flies such as Oriental fruit fly (Dacus ferrugineus) on guava, mango, Citrus, Banana, avocado & papaya; Melon fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae ) on melon & other cucurbits. 40 Major groups of Pests

41. VIII) Order Lepidoptera: It contains the following insect pests: 1)Citrus Leaf Miner (Phyllocnistis citrella ; Fam: Phyllocnistidae): - Hosts: Citrus species as the main hosts; Other members of family Rutaceae as alternative hosts. - Damage: the feeding larvae make broad serpentine galleries (mines ) in the attacked leaves leaving a distinctive dark line of fecal pellets along the center of the tunnel. In young leaves, the lamina folds over & twist with a high degree of distortion. Badly damaged leaves dry out & are clearly of little use photosynthe-tically. - Pest Status: In young plants, the damage can be very serious and important but on older plants, infestation levels may be occasional & less important except on young shoots. - Life History: Eggs (flattened, oval and white) are laid singly near the midrib on the underneath of the leaf. Incubation for 3-4 days. Hatched larvae penetrate the epidermis & commences burrowing, eventually making a long serpentine convoluted mine 41 Major groups of Pests

42. which is conspicuously silvery in color owing to the air trapped under the epidermis. Larval development usually takes 16-18 days & the mature larvae (3.5 mm long) are yellowish-white in color. Pupation takes place at the edge of the leaf & lamina margin is turned over to protect the pupa underneath. The adult is tiny moth (2-3 mm body lenthg with 5-8 mm wing span) with grayish-white color & black eyes & 4 black spines across each forewing but hind wings are feather-like. Total life cycle takes 3 weeks & there are 5 generations /year . - Distribution: in South East Asia up to China, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, North & north-East Australia. Also, in Easdt Africa (Sudan & Ethiopia. - Control: Chemical control by spraying insecticides (e.g. Vertimec, Phosphamidon , Dimethoate) is the main control measure. The treatment should be repeated especially in spring & summer. Pruning of infested leaves, branches & shoots to reduce the infestation then burning them to avoid re-infestation. 42 Major groups of Pests

43. 2)Diamond Backmoth (Plutella xylostella ; Fam: Yponomeutidae): - Hosts: crucifers crops of Brassica spp. as the main hosts; other cultivated & wild crucifers as the alternative hosts. - Damage: 1st instar larvae mine the leaves entering from the underside but later instars also eat the lower epidermis making small “windows” in the leaf; after a while, the upper epidermis often ruptures so that a small hole results. If the infestation is heavy, the entire plant is devastated. - Pest Status: a very common & wide spread pest of cruciferae. It is often serious especially in some of the warmer parts of the world (the attack is severe at hot dry weather). - Life history: Tiny yellow eggs of the insect are laid on the upper surface of the leaves (singly or in small groups). Hatching takes place after 3-8 days. Each female lays 50-150 eggs. Hatched larvae (caterpillar-like) are pale green with a tapering body (widest in the middle). Head is black when hatched but turns paler yellow when mature. Mature larvae may reach 12 mm. If 43 Major groups of Pests

44. disturbed, the larvae wriggle violently & may drop off the leaf suspended by a silken thread. Larval development takes 14-28 days. Pupation takes place in a gauzy silken cocoon (9 mm long) stuck to the plant foliage & pupal development takes 5-10 days under warm conditions. The adults (6 mm body length & 15 mm wing span) are small gray moth with three pale triangular marks on the hind margin of each fore wings & when the wings are closed, the marks form a diamond pattern indicating the common name of the insect. The adult moth lives for 2 weeks. 2-3 generations per year in British Columbia (cold region) but 15 generations /year were recorded in lowland Malaysia (warm region). The life-cycle takes 12-15 days in warmer regions. - Distribution: Cosmoplitan in distribution. They are found in cold, temperate & warmer regions of the world. - Control: In many parts of the world, this insect pest has develo-ped resistance to the usual insecticides so alternating insecti-cides or searching for alternative control methods is sought such as using biological control with parasitoids (e.g. Diadegma 44 Major groups of Pests

45. semiclausum ) or biological control using entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana & Metarhizium anisopliae) on the larvae of this insect. 45 Major groups of Pests