Chapter 37

1. Chapter 37 Plant Nutrition

2. Nutrient Reservoirs • Every organism continually exchanges energy and materials with its environment • For plants…water and minerals come from the soil, while carbon dioxide comes from the air • The branching root system and shoot system of a vascular plant ensure extensive networking with both reservoirs of inorganic nutrients

3. Macronutrients and Micronutrients • Plants derive most of their organic mass from the CO2 of air but they also depend on soil nutrients • More than 50 chemical elements have been identified among the inorganic substances in plants, but not all of these are essential • A chemical element is considered essential if it is required for a plant to complete a life cycle

4. APPLICATION In hydroponic culture, plants are grown in mineral solutions without soil. One use of hydroponic culture is to identify essential elements in plants. TECHNIQUE Plant roots are bathed in aerated solutions of known mineral composition. Aerating the water provides the roots with oxygen for cellular respiration. A particular mineral, such as potassium, can be omitted to test whether it is essential. Control: Solution containing all minerals Experimental: Solution without potassium RESULTS If the omitted mineral is essential, mineral deficiency symptoms occur, such as stunted growth and discolored leaves. Deficiencies of different elements may have different symptoms, which can aid in diagnosing mineral deficiencies in soil. How would you identify an essential nutrient? • Hydroponic culture can be used to determine which chemicals elements are essential

5. Macronutrients and Micronutrients • Nine of the essential elements are called macronutrients because plants require them in relatively large amounts • C, O, H, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S • The remaining eight essential elements are known as micronutrients because plants need them in very small amounts • Cl, Fe, Zn, Mn, B, Cu, N, Mo

6. Essential elements in plants

7. Mineral Deficiency • The symptoms of mineral deficiency • Depend partly on the nutrient’s function • Depend on the mobility of a nutrient within the plant • Deficiency of a mobile nutrient • Usually affects older organs more than young ones (young tissue can more efficiently draw minerals to it) • Deficiency of a less mobile nutrient • Usually affects younger organs more than older ones (older tissue has a store of minerals to fall back on when the mineral is in short supply)

8. Healthy Phosphate-deficient Potassium-deficient Nitrogen-deficient Mineral Deficiency • The most common deficiencies • Are those of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus Reddish-purple margins esp. on young leaves “Firing”…drying along tips and margins of older leaves Yellowing that starts at the tip and moves along the center of older leaves

9. Soil Characteristics • Soil quality is a major determinant of plant distribution and growth • Along with climate • The major factors determining whether particular plants can grow well in a certain location are the texture and composition of the soil • Texture…is the soil’s general structure (sandy, clayey, etc) • Composition…refers to the soil’s organic and inorganic chemical components • Various sizes of particles derived from the breakdown of rock are found in soil along with organic material (humus) in various stages of decomposition • Topsoil… is the mixture of particles of rock and organic material

10. The A horizon is the topsoil, a mixture of broken-down rock of various textures, living organisms, and decaying organic matter. A The B horizon contains much less organic matter than the A horizon and is less weathered. B C The C horizon, composed mainly of partially broken-down rock, serves as the “parent” material for the upper layers of soil. Soil Horizons • The topsoil and other distinct soil layers, or horizons are often visible in vertical profile where there is a road cut or deep hole

11. Soil particle surrounded by film of water Root hair Water available to plant Air space Soil water. A plant cannot extract all the water in the soil because some of it is tightly held by hydrophilic soil particles. Water bound less tightly to soil particles can be absorbed by the root. Availability of Soil Water • After a rainfall, water drains away from the larger spaces of soil but smaller spaces retain water because of its attraction to surfaces of clay and other particles. • The film of loosely bound water is usually available to plants

12. Soil particle – – K+ K+ – – – – – – – Ca2+ Mg2+ Cu2+ K+ H+ HCO3– + H2CO3 H2O + CO2 H+ Root hair Cation exchange in soil. Hydrogen ions (H+) help make nutrients available by displacing positively charged minerals (cations such as Ca2+) that were bound tightly to the surface of negatively charged soil particles. Plants contribute H+ by secreting it from root hairsand also by cellular respiration, which releases CO2 into the soil solution, where it reacts with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Dissociation of this acid adds H+ to the soil solution. Cation Exchange • Acids derived from roots contribute to a plant’s uptake of minerals when H+ displaces mineral cations from clay particles

13. Agriculture • Conventional agriculture • In contrast to natural ecosystems agriculture depletes the mineral content of the soil, taxes water reserves, and encourages erosion • Sustainable agriculture • Is ecologically sound • Is economically viable • Is socially just • Is humane.

14. Fertilizers • Commercially produced fertilizers contain minerals that are either mined or prepared by industrial processes • “Organic” fertilizers are composed of manure, fishmeal, or compost

15. Irrigation • Is a huge drain on water resources when used for farming in arid regions • Can change the chemical makeup of soil • Salinization (salt buildup) sprinkler drip Ditch…trench

16. Erosion • Topsoil from thousands of acres of farmland • Is lost to water and wind erosion each year in the United States The U.S. Soil Conservation Service reports that more than 4 million acres of cropland are being lost to erosion in this country every year. That's an area greater than the size of Connecticut. Our annual topsoil loss amounts to 7 billion tons. That is 60,000 pounds for each member of the population. Erosion on conventionally tilled field

17. Prevention of topsoil loss • Strip cropping: practice of growing field crops in narrow strips either at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, or following the natural contours of the terrain to prevent wind and water erosion of the soil • Contour tillage (slows water runoff and erosion)

18. Prevention of topsoil loss • Conservation tillage (Min-till) • Terraces A minimum tillage system may involve quicker and fewer passes at a shallower depth • Cover Crops Cover crop in an orchard Cover crop in vegetable garden

19. Soil Reclamation • Some areas are unfit for agriculture • Because of contamination of soil or groundwater with toxic pollutants • Phytoremediation: is a biological, nondestructive technology that seeks to reclaim contaminated areas by using the ability of some plants to remove soil pollutants

20. Nitrogen • Nitrogen is often the mineral that has the greatest effect on plant growth • Plants require nitrogen as a component of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, and a host of other important organic molecules

21. Atmosphere N2 N2 Atmosphere Nitrate and nitrogenousorganiccompoundsexported inxylem toshoot system Soil Nitrogen-fixingbacteria N2 Denitrifyingbacteria H+ (From soil) NH4+ NH3 (ammonia) Soil NO3– (nitrate) NH4+ (ammonium) Nitrifyingbacteria Ammonifyingbacteria Organicmaterial (humus) Root Soil Bacteria and Nitrogen Availability • Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric N2 to nitrogenous minerals that plants can absorb as a nitrogen source for organic synthesis

22. The Role of Bacteria in Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation • Symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide some plant species with a built-in source of fixed nitrogen • From an agricultural standpoint the most important and efficient symbioses between plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria occur in the legume family (peas, beans, and other similar plants)

23. Nodules Roots Pea plant root. The bumps onthis pea plant root are nodules containing Rhizobium bacteria.The bacteria fix nitrogen and obtain photosynthetic productssupplied by the plant. Root Nodules • Along a legumes roots are swellings called nodules composed of plant cells that have been “infected” by nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria • The bacteria of a nodule obtain sugar from the plant and supply the plant with fixed nitrogen • Each legume is associated with a particular strain of Rhizobium

24. Rhizobiumbacteria Infectionthread 2 The bacteria penetrate the cortex within the Infection thread. Cells of the cortex and pericycle begin dividing, and vesicles containing the bacteria bud into cortical cells from the branching infection thread. This process results in the formation of bacteroids. Dividing cellsin root cortex Roots emit chemical signals that attract Rhizobium bacteria. The bacteria then emit signals that stimulate root hairs to elongate and to form an infection thread by an invagination of the plasma membrane. 1 Bacteroid Dividing cells in pericycle Infectedroot hair 1 2 Developingroot nodule Bacteroid 3 3Growth continues in the affected regions of the cortex and pericycle, and these two masses of dividing cells fuse, forming the nodule. 4 The nodule develops vascular tissue that supplies nutrients to the nodule and carries nitrogenous compounds into the vascular cylinder for distribution throughout the plant. 4 Nodulevasculartissue Bacteroid Development of a soybean root nodule

25. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation and Agriculture • The agriculture benefits of symbiotic nitrogen fixation are the basis for crop rotation • In this practice a non-legume such as maize is planted one year, and the following year a legume is planted to restore the concentration of nitrogen in the soil

26. Mycorrhizae and Plant Nutrition • Mycorrhizae: are modified roots consisting of mutualistic associations of fungi and roots • The fungus benefits from a steady supply of sugar donated by the host plant • In return, the fungus increases the surface area of water uptake and mineral absorption and supplies water and minerals to the host plant • Agricultural importance: Farmers and foresters often inoculate seeds with spores of mycorrhizal fungi to promote the formation of mycorrhizae

27. Epidermis Mantle(fungalsheath) Cortex aEctomycorrhizae. The mantle of the fungal mycelium ensheathes the root. Fungal hyphae extend from the mantle into the soil, absorbing water and minerals, especially phosphate. Hyphae also extend into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex, providing extensive surface area for nutrient exchange between the fungus and its host plant. (a) 100 m Endodermis Fungalhyphaebetweencorticalcells Mantle(fungal sheath) (colorized SEM) Ectomycorrhizae • In ectomycorrhizae the mycelium of the fungus forms a dense sheath over the surface of the root

28. Epidermis Cortex 10 m (b) 2Endomycorrhizae. No mantle forms around the root, but microscopic fungal hyphae extend into the root. Within the root cortex, the fungus makes extensive contact with the plant through branching of hyphae that form arbuscules, providing an enormous surface area for nutrient swapping. The hyphae penetrate the cell walls, but not the plasma membranes, of cells within the cortex. Cortical cells Endodermis Fungalhyphae Vesicle Casparianstrip Roothair Arbuscules (LM, stained specimen) Endomycorrhizae • In endomycorrhizae the microscopic fungal hyphae extend into the root

29. EPIPHYTES Staghorn fern, an epiphyte PARASITIC PLANTS Host’s phloem Dodder Haustoria Mistletoe, a photosynthetic parasite Indian pipe, a nonphotosynthetic parasite Dodder, a nonphotosynthetic parasite CARNIVOROUS PLANTS Venus’ flytrap Sundews Pitcher plants Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants Epiphytes use a host for support but do not extract nutrients from the host • Some plants have nutritional adaptations that use other organisms in nonmutualistic ways

30. Carnivorous plant movie

31. Improving the Protein Yield of Crops • Plant breeding research has resulted in new varieties of maize, wheat, and rice that are enriched in protein • Such research addresses the most widespread form of human malnutrition: protein deficiency • Many of the projects creating GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are aimed at protein enrichment of crops. High lysine corn