Exchange of water and salts depends on The size of gradient Surface area of the animal

4. Cell plasma membrane maintains ionic, but not osmotic difference between intracellular and extracellular fluids. • Epithelium surrounding the body often maintains both ionic and osmotic difference between animal and their environments. • Gills, salty gland and kidney are primary organs of osmoregulation in vertebrates • Appropriate solute concentrations and water are maintained by osomregulation

5. Exchange of water and salts depends on • The size of gradient • Surface area of the animal • Permeability of the animal’s surface

6. The surface-to-volume ratio is greater for small animals than large animals. A small animal will dehydrate or hydrate more rapidly than a larger animal

8. Various Strategies for Preserving Body Water • Amphibians have moist, highly permeable skins • To avoid desiccation, stay in cool, damp microenvironment, stay close to water • water and slats are stored in a large-volume lymphatic system and an oversized urinary bladder. • Insect’s waxy cuticle • Burning fat to produce water in seal

9. Seals became fat when eating fish but get thin eating marine invertebrate

10. The respiratory loss of water is minimized by temporal countercurrent system

11. Water loss via respiration depends on • Difference between body temperature and air temperature • Humidity of inhaled air

12. Osomoregulatory in Various Classes of Animals

13. Euryhaline aquatic animal can tolerate a wide range of salinities Stenohaline animals can tolerate only narrow osmotic range

14. Freshwater animals face two kinds of osmoregulatory problems: • gain of water • loss of salt • To prevent the net gain of water and net loss of salts, freshwater animals • Drink no water • Produce a dilute urine • Replace lost salts from ingested food • Active transport salt from external environment

15. Marine invertebrates and hagfish (vertebrate) are iso-osmotic to seawater, and have similar osmolarity and ionic concentrations to seawater Elasmobranch (e.g. shark, rays and skates, Latimeria) is iso-osmotic to seawater by maintaining low concentration of electrolytes and high concentration of urea and TMAO (trimethylamine oxide) Marine teleost, bird and mammals are hypo-osmotic to seawater

16. Marine teleosts face two kinds of osmoregulatory problems: • loss of water • gain of salt • To prevent the net loss of water and net gain of salts, marine teleosts • Drink water • Active transport Na+, Cl- and K+ from gill to seawater. • Secretion of divalent salts (Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-) by kidney to urine

17. Marine reptiles and marine birds • Drink seawater • Kidney is unable to excrete the salts • Salt gland (near eyes, nose and in the tongue) secrete concentrated salt solution

18. Most mammals lack salt gland and will become dehydrated if they drink seawater

19. Desert animal faces double jeopardy • Excess heat • Absence of free freshwater

20. Camel strategies: • Change body temperature • Produce dry feces & concentrated urine • Store high levels of urea • Camel do not sweat and has large body mass and thick fur

21. Marine mammals: Drink no water Produce hypertonic urea Absorb water from metabolic activity and ingested food Terrestrial arthropods Create high concentrated solutions in the rectum to absorb water from the air Salivary glands secrete highly concentrated KCl

22. Structure of the Kidney • 2 distinct regions: • Outer cortex: • Many capillaries. • Medulla: • Renal pyramids separated by renal columns. • Nephron is functional unit of the kidney

23. Kidney Functions • Primarily on regulation of ECF through formation of urine. • Regulate volume of blood plasma and BP. • Regulate concentration of waste products in the blood. • Regulate concentration of electrolytes as Na+, K+, and HC03-. • Regulate pH. • Secrete erythropoietin.

24. Nephron • Functional unit of the kidney. • Consists of: • Blood vessels • vasa recta • peritubular capillaries • Urinary tubules • Proximal tube • Loop of Henle • Distal tube • Collecting tube

26. Three main processes for urine production • Filtration • Reabsorption • Secretion

27. Glomerular filteration • Ultrafiltration in glomerulus depends on • pressure difference • Membrane permeability

32. Fig. 12-9, p.534

33. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus • Region in each nephron where the afferent arteriole comes in contact the the thick ascending limb of the loop. Two types of cells • Macula densa: • Monitor the osmolarity and flow • Inhibit renin secretion when blood [Na+] in blood increases • Granular cells: • Secrete renin. • Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. • Initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

35. Arterial blood pressure Driving pressure into glomerulus Glomerular capillary pressure GFR Rate of fluid flow through tubules Blood flow into glomerulus Glomerular capillary pressure to normal GFR to normal Stimulation of macula densa cells to release vasoactive chemicals Chemicals released that induce afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction Fig. 12-13, p.538

36. Arterial blood pressure Detection by aortic arch and carotid sinus baroreceptors Arterial blood pressure Sympathetic activity Cardiac output Total peripheral resistance Glomerular capillary blood pressure GFR Urine volume Conservation of fluid and salt Arterial blood pressure Short-term adjustment for Long-term adjustment for Generalized arteriolar vasoconstriction Afferent arteriolar vasoconstriction Fig. 12-14, p.539

37. Tubular re-absorption • Return of most of the filtered solutes and H20 from the urine filtrate back into the peritubular capillaries. • About 180 L/day of ultrafiltrate produced, however only 1 – 2 L of urine excreted (>99%). • Minimum of 400 ml/day urine necessary to excrete metabolic wastes (obligatory water loss).

40. Glucose re-absorption • Filtered glucose and amino acids are normally reabsorbed by the nephrons. • Carrier mediated transport: • Saturation. • Exhibit Tm. (320 mg min-1, 3mgml-1)

41. Solute concentrations in the interstitial fluid increase from the cortex to the depths of the medulla. Urea increases most in the inner medulla. NaCl increases most in outer medulla

43. Proximal tube • 70% Na+, Cl- and H20 reabsorbed across the PT into the blood. 90% K+ reabsorbed. • Fluid reduced to ¼ original volume but still iso-osmatic 300 mOsm/L • Na+/K+ ATPase pump located in basal and lateral sides of cell membrane creates gradient for diffusion of Na+ across the apical membrane. • Na+/K+ ATPase pump extrudes Na+. • Cl- follows electrical gradient into the interstitial fluid. • H20 follows by osmosis. • Reabsorption is constant, not subject to hormonal regulation.

45. Fig. 12-16, p.541

46. Fig. 12-17, p.541

47. Descending Limb Loop of Henle • Deeper regions of medulla reach 1200 mOsm/L. • Impermeable to passive diffusion of NaCl & urea • Permeable to H20. • Hypertonic interstitial fluid causes H20 movement out of the descending limb via osmosis. • Fluid volume decreases in tubule, causing higher [Na+] in the ascending limb.

48. Ascending Limb Loop of Henle • Na+ actively transported across the basolateral membrane by Na+ / K+ ATPase pump. • Cl- passively follows Na+ down electrical gradient. • K+ passively diffuses back into filtrate. • Walls are impermeable to H20.

49. Distal tubule • Transport K+, H+, and NH3 into the lumen • Reabsorption of Na+, Cl-, and HCO3- • H20 follows passively • subject to hormonal regulation.

50. Collecting Duct • Medullary area impermeable to high [NaCl] that surrounds it. • The walls of the CD are permeable to H20. • H20 is drawn out of the CD by osmosis. • Rate of osmotic movement is determined by the # of aquaporins in the cell membrane. • Permeable to H20 depends upon the presence of ADH. • ADH binds to its membrane receptors on CD, incorporating water channels into cell membrane.