C. Sequestration zones & relative costs

1. C. Sequestration zones& relative costs

2. Lake Nyos, Cameroon CO2 “burp” • formed 400 yr ago in volcanic field • CO2 dissolved to heavy layer at bottom • Rainwater accumulated, sank, caused overturn, CO2 displaced O2 and suffocated 1700 people instantly • Any CCS must be stabilized!

3. Enhanced Oil Recovery w/ CO2 Has been used for 40+ yrs Currently in 5% US oil extraction Main challenge is to “thicken” CO2 for controlled flow & reliable long-term CCS • Improved Mobility Control in CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery using SPI Gels (Impact Technologies, LLC) • Engineered Nanoparticle-Stabilized CO2 Foams to Improve Volumetric Sweep of CO2 EOR Processes(U. Texas - Austin) • Novel CO2 Foam Concepts and Injection Schemes for Improving CO2 Sweep Efficiency in Sandstone and Carbonate Hydrocarbon Formations (U. Texas - Austin) • Nanoparticle-Stabilized CO2 Foam for CO2-EOR Application (NM Institute of Mining & Technology)

4. Problem: limited land storage volume e.g. Australia Deep sea, basaltic rock? || acidification ERoEI of sequestration?

5. CCS doesn’t scale! • ~30% efficiency loss, so 1.3x more coal burned • Futuregen 2 demo gets 90% of 200 MW plant, 40% efficiency hit, in 2017 (15 yrs after first planned), 175 mi to store 1 MT CO2/yr • To bury 20% of world’s CO2 emissions, need • new worldwide infrastructure 1.7x volume handled now by oil industry for CO2 absorption/compression/transport/storage • took decades and $60 trillion to build! • Needs billions of $ federal R&D • Would accelerate depletion so coal would last only a few decades • Need to monitor CO2 cemeteries for millennia • Why not “just" reduce emissions??

6. Greenhouse gases & peak oil IPCC “Present estimates of coal reserves are based upon methods that have not been reviewed or revised since their inception in 1974, and much of the input data were compiled in the early 1970s. Recent programs to assess reserves in limited areas using updated methods indicate that only a small fraction of previously estimated reserves are actually mineable reserves.” Natl Academy of Sciences REVISION IS NOT INCORPORATED IN IPCC scenarios!

7. Where Does IPCC Get Its Coal Numbers? Routledge 2010 • Scenario report SRES (2000) references 1995 and 1998 surveys • IPCC chose to use additional recoverable reserves and they also chose 1998 (3,368Gt) instead of 1995 (680Gt) (Deffeyes’ Law) • Additional recoverable reserves are now 1/19 that in 1998 • 4th Assessment report notes the 2004 survey results, and includes 5,000Gt as a “possible resource” with no reference

8. Routledge 2010 Carbon-Dioxide Emissions • Carbon coefficients for oil, gas, & coal from IPCC 4th Assessment • Projection is less than any IPCC scenario no tar sands, hydrates, or unconventional gas

9. CO2 rise boosts T for ~1000 yrs Problem: CO2 lingers in atmosphere. What we’ve put in already will increase T for 10,000 yrs. Reason: CO2 reactants vary throughout atmosphere, i.e. CO2 destruction is dispersed. Routledge 2010

10. (wet) shale oil vs (dry) oil shale • Oil/gas mix in “tight” reservoir, mobilized by fracking liquids, self-pressurized • Growing contribution to US oil production • Will be applied worldwide • ERoEI ~ 5-6 • Kerogen (not yet oil) + 10% bitumen, electric heaters melt it out of impermeable rock • ERoEI <2? • ~9% energy density of crude oil (~baked potato) • “Best” Green River (CO, UT, WY), huge reserve Canadian “bitumen” (tar) sands Mix of sand grains, thin water layer (critical!) & bitumen Dissolves in solvents and flows when heated to ~170 oC ERoEI ~5-6 for mining, “smaller” for in-situ

11. “Critical ingredients of an eventual success are straightforward: beginning the quest immediately, progressing from small steps to grander solutions, persevering for not just years but for generations --- and always keeping in mind that our blunders may accelerate the demise of modern, high-energy civilization, while our successes may extend its lifespan for centuries, perhaps even for millennia.” Physicist V. Smil