Lesson III Normative Ethics

1. Lesson IIINormativeEthics Ethical theories

2. Classes of ethical theories • Consequentialist ethics focus on the consequences of our actions, which actions are good is relative to the ends and results of those actions. • Deontological ethics focus on the moral significance of each action or type of action, some actions are good for themselves and ought to be considered our duty.

3. Consequentialist: Virtue ethics (eudemonism) - Aristotle Hedonism - Epicurus Emotivism – David Hume Utilitarianism – Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill Deontological: Natural Rights theories – John Locke Ethics of duty – Immanuel Kant Contractarianism – Jürgen Habermas & John Rawls Ethical Theories

4. Virtue Ethics I - Aristotle • Happiness • The highest good can only be defined by being final, that is for being something desired for its own sake and not as a medium for a further end. Humans universally seek happiness, hence happiness is the highest good since it is the only ultimate goal. But people have very different opinions concerning what happiness is (mainly pleasure, wealth and honor), how are we to understand it? • Aristotle understands happiness as “eudaimonia” (good-spirit), that is “flourishing” or “self-realization”. True happiness then: • Is enduring (the whole life, not instants, is to be considered happy) • Is and end in itself (when reached, nothing else is pursued) • Is self-sufficient (the possibility of achieving it relies on me). • Happiness must then rely on human nature, and consist on the excellent or full realization of human’s proper function, that is reason.

5. Virtue Ethics II - Aristotle • Virtue • “Areté” (“excellence”, “virtue”) is the way of achieving happiness, since it is a disposition of our character, which may then last long and depends on us. The happy violinist would be the virtuous one, the one who plays violin with excellence. The happy human would be the virtuous one, the one who uses reason with excellence. Uses it for what? For making the best choices. Practical knowledge, wisdom applied to voluntary actions leads to happiness. • Prudence • Prudence is the main virtue, it is the virtue of virtues since it consists on the ability, the disposition to recognize the best action, that is, the mean between two extremes, two vices. • The prudent man, the wise, will achieve happiness because his character leads him to perform virtuous actions, to make apt choices, he has the habit of acting on the best reason.

6. Hedonism - Epicurus • Epicurus believed that pleasure is the greatest good (hedonism). But the way to attain pleasure is to live modestly and to gain knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of one's desires (distinguishing natural and necessary pleasures from those non natural nor necessary). • Happiness in its highest form is constituted by a state of tranquility (ataraxia) and freedom from fear, as well as absence of bodily pain (aponia). • The tetrapharmakos (“fourth-part-cure”) is the recipe leading to happiness: • Don’t fear God • Don’t worry about death • What is good is easy to get • What is terrible is easy to endure

7. Utilitarianism – John Stuart Mill • Accordingtoutilitarianismthe moral worth of anactionisdeterminedonlybyitsresultingoutcome. • Rightactions lead tomaximizeoverallhappiness: “itisthegreatesthappiness of thegreatestnumberthatisthemeasure of right and wrong”. • Nonethelesssomekinds of pleasure (those of theintellect) are more valuablethanothers (those of thebody), becausetheylastlonger and are safer: “Itisbettertobe a Socratesdissatisfiedthan a pigsatisfied. And ifthepigis of a differentopinion, itisbecauseitonlyknowsitsownside of thequestion.”

8. Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty I • Good will: • A good will is the only intrinsically good thing, an action is only good if performed out of duty rather than out of practical need or desire. The good will is a will that acts from duty as a “good-in-itself.” • The class of actions in accordance with duty (heteronomy) must be distinguished from the class of actions performed from duty (autonomy).

9. Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty II • Duty • Duty is the necessity of acting out of respect for universal law. • Duty is then expressed with a categorical imperative (these imperatives command unconditionally, “You ought to do X” ) not with an hypothetical imperative (these command conditionally on your having a relevant desire, “If you want X, you ought to do Y”).

10. Immanuel Kant - Ethics of duty III • Categoricalimperative • Anunconditionaldemand comes out of autonomy, reason and universality. How can bethisdemandbeexpressed? • Thisisonepossible formula of thecategoricalimperative: • “Actonly in such a way as you can willthatyouractionshouldbecome a universal law." • “Actalways in such a waythatyoutreatHumanity no only as a mean but as anend in itself.”