Organizational Behavior: Perception

1. Organizational Behavior: Perception Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

2. Food Survey Last month, a world-wide survey was conducted by the UN. The only question asked was... : "Would you please give your honest opinion about solutions to the food shortage in the rest of the world?" The survey was a huge failure because...: • In Africa they didn't know what "food" means. • In Eastern Europe they didn't know what "honest" means. • In Western Europe they didn't know what "shortage" means. • In China they didn't know what "opinion" means. • In the Middle East they didn't know what "solution" means. • In South America they didn't know what "please" means. • In the USA they didn't know what "the rest of the world" means Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

3. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

4. Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting Selective Attention Organization and Interpretation Emotions and Behavior Perceptual Process Model Environmental Stimuli Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

5. Perception: A Social Information Processing Model Stage 1 Selective Attention/ Comprehension Stage 2 Encoding and Simplification Stage 3 Storage and Retention Stage 4 Retrieval and Response A Competing environmental stimuli: * People * Events * Objects B Interpretation and categorization A Judgments and decisions C Memory C C D E F F Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

6. Social Information ProcessingModel of Perception Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuliStage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata- The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differences Stage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long- term memory- Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people Stage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisions Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

7. Factors That Influence Perception Characteristics of the Perceiver Values and attitudes Motives Interests Experience Expectations Perceptual context Time Work setting Socialsetting Perception Characteristics of the Target Structural beauty Novelty and Familiarity Motion and Change Repetition Intensity Sounds Size Contrast and Background Proximity Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

8. Attribution Process • Internal Attribution • Perception that outcomes are due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate • External Attribution • Perception that outcomes are due to situation or fate rather than the person Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

9. Kelley’s Model of Attribution Basic Premise:An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior. • Consensus: Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers. Low consensus indicates an individual is different from peers. • Distinctiveness: Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks. • Consistency: Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time. • Predictions: Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

10. Consensus Low High Individual Performance Individual Performance A B C D E A B C D E People People Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

11. Distinctiveness High Low Individual Performance Individual Performance A B C D E A B C D E Tasks Tasks Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

12. Consistency Low High Individual Performance Individual Performance Time Time Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p. 56. Used with permission. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

13. Attribution Errors • Fundamental Attribution Error • Attributing behavior of other people to internal factors (their motivation/ability) • Self-Serving Bias • Attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

14. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Supervisor forms expectations Employee’s behavior matches expectations Expectations affect supervisor’s behavior Supervisor’s behavior affects employee Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

15. Identity: Who Am I? • Social Identity • Organizational Identity • Personal Identity Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

16. Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making • Stereotype : A stereotype is an individual’s set of beliefs about the characteristics of a group of people. • Halo:A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object. • Leniency:A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion. • Central Tendency:The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral. • Recency Effects:The tendency to remember recent information. Most recent information dominates perceptions, If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively. • Contrast Effects:The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects. • Primacy: First impressions • Projection: Believing other people are similar to you Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

17. Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making • Overconfidence Error • Availability Heuristic • Representative Heuristic • Escalation of Commitment Error • Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic • Confirmation Bias • Randomness Bias • Hindsight Bias Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

18. Assign person to category based on observable info Assign category’s traits to the person The Stereotyping Process Develop categories and assign traits Professors are absent-minded Our instructor is a professor Our instructor is absent-minded Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

19. Improving Perceptual Accuracy Diversity Initiatives Improving Perceptual Accuracy Know Yourself Empathize With Others Compare Perceptions With Others Postpone Impression Formation Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

20. Feedback Open Area Open Area Blind Area Blind Area Disclosure Hidden Area Unknown Area Hidden Area Unknown Area Know Yourself (Johari Window)Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham Unknown to Self Known to Self Known to Others Unknown to Others Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

21. Applications in Organizations Employment Interview Performance Expectations Performance Evaluation Organizational Communication Employee Effort Employee Loyalty Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

22. Link Between Perception and Individual Decision Making Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

23. + A1 T E C H A1 A1 Set Decision Criteria A2 A2 A2 A3 Choice Problem Make Optimal Decision Identify and Define Problem A4 Criteria An An An Weight the Criteria Generate Alternatives Evaluate Alternatives Rational Model of Decision Making Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

24. Assumptions of the Model One: Problem Clarity Four: Constant Preferences Two: Known Options Five: No Constraints Three: Clear Preferences Six: Maximum Payoff Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

25. A Model of Bounded Rationality Ascertain the Need for a Decision Set “Satisficing” Criteria Identify a Limited Set of Alternatives Compare Alternatives Against Criteria Select the First “Good Enough” Choice Yes Simplify the Problem Expand Search for Alternatives A “Satisficing” Alternative Exists No Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

26. The Role of Intuition • Uncertainty • Limited Facts and Data • Time • Less Scientific Predictability Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

27. Decision-Making Styles High Analytic Conceptual Tolerance for Ambiguity Directive Behavioral Low Way of Thinking Rational Intuitive Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

28. Reward Systems Performance Evaluations Organizational Constraints Formal Regulations Historical Constraints Time Constraints Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

29. Time Orientation The Value of Rationality Cultural Differences Groups or Individuals Problem Identification Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

30. Utilitarian Rights Justice Decision-Making and Ethics Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.