Critical Sexuality Studies and Research Methodologies

1. Critical Sexuality Studies and Research Methodologies From Advancing Sexuality Studies: a short course on sexuality theory and research methodologies

2. Schedule 2

3. Module aims To introduce participants to key terms and approaches within research methodologies To consider the intersections between ways of understanding the world, methodology and field methods, and the implications for Critical Sexuality Studies research To examine the research design process, from a Critical Sexuality Studies’ perspective 3

4. Participants will: • Develop an understanding of issues specific to conducting research on sexuality, including the ethical, political, cultural and social implications of sexuality as a field of inquiry • Obtain basic familiarity with how to design a research project • Be able to apply the principles of Critical Sexuality Studies methodologies to the development of a research project in co-operation with other members of the group 4

5. Session 1.What is research?Key terms and concepts 5

6. Brainstorm • What research experiences have you had? (10 mins) • Report back to whole group (10 mins) • What might be a working definition of research? (10 mins) • Research: from 16th century French recerche /recercher • To go about seeking • A search or investigation directed to the discovery of some fact by careful consideration or study of a subject; a course of critical or scientific inquiry (http://dictionary.oed.com/) (OED online) • … ‘research’ is probably one of the dirtiest words in the Indigenous world’s vocabulary (Tuhiwai Smith, [1998] 2008: 1) 6

7. Research methodology The view of what constitutes a methodology … in the context of social research is a contentious issue (Sarantakos, [1993] 1994: 32) … the logical principles underlying the organisation of … the conduct of scientific enquiry (Macquarie Dictionary 1981) or: The best means of acquiring knowledge about the world (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005: 183) 7

8. A CSS understanding • Within Critical Sexuality Studies, methodology is understood to include ways of understanding the world • Inextricably linked to ways of acquiring knowledge about the world • Methodology also includes the field methods one chooses

9. The complexity of knowledge • Ways of understanding the world often presented by simplistic division between: • Most people hold elements of both, but preference one over the other • Knowledge as objective = dominant 9

10. Objective/subjective? • Objective understanding of knowledge tends to lead to quantitative research approaches: • Counting what, who, when, where … to try and establish causal relationships and patterns of association • Subjective understanding tends to lead to qualitative research approaches: • Gathering opinions, beliefs, experiences, meanings to try and understand the why or how of a research topic 10

11. Quantitative approach In general, a quantitative approach: Looks for causal or law-like explanations and descriptions of patterns or association Focuses on data in numerical form, in non-natural settings Deductive: works downwards and inwards from a hypothesis Requires larger samples Look for generalisation through obtaining large sample size and predicting majority trends (and differences) Main research method is survey/questionnaire Other methods include social network analysis Uses mainly statistical analysis to evaluate associations 11

12. Qualitative approach In general, a qualitative approach will: Seek in-depth and subjective understandings Focus on ‘rich’ or ‘thick’ description Smaller samples, in naturalistic settings Inductive: works upwards and outwards from specific observations to broader generalisations and theories Looks for applicability of findings at socio-cultural process level Expectation that the researcher will be ‘reflexive’ Many field methods, often in combination e.g. in-depth interviews, focus groups discussions, textual analysis, participant observation, participatory action research 12

13. Marshall (1996: 524)

14. CSS research • Sexuality is an intersubjectively negotiated, social and historical product • Qualitative methods seen to offer the best framework for interpreting sexual meanings, identities and categories (Gamson, 2000) • Approach and field methods chosen in any particular research project will be influenced by the overarching methodology 14

15. Pre-readings discussion Focus questions Kavanagh et al. (2002) What do the authors mean when they argue ‘we must begin to investigate the process of research’? May (2001) What are the differences between positivism and realism? Why have feminist researchers been critical of science and social scientific approaches to research? (15 mins + 20 mins feedback) Brainstorm: In your experience, is one research approach given more legitimacy than another? If so, why? (20 mins) 15

16. Research design principles Well-designed research will: Show a clear link between the overall methodology, the research approach and the field methods Be well thought through and have a precise focus What are the issues? Are the research questions well crafted? What do you want the project to accomplish? How might this be achieved? What dissemination plans or training might be needed? Meet with funding/grant application requirements Leave a ‘paper trail’, documenting all steps taken Be ethical What about anonymity, security, safety? For researchers and researched? 16

17. Session 2. The importance (and difficulty) of CSS research 17

18. CSS research: an overview CSS work is multifaceted and multidisciplinary, but: Always requires a focus on the shifting relationships of power, knowledge, context, and culture CSS research tends towards qualitative inquiry Needs to be theory-driven, usually empirically inductive Many field methods, constantly evolving Capable of generalisation: processes, practices, social dynamics (rarely population predictive) 18

19. CSS research: challenges Difficult field to research Site of secrecy, shame, stigma and discrimination Strong historical, political, legal and socio-cultural influences Complex relationship to other social phenomena, e.g. gender, social class/SES, ethnicity/race, postcoloniality/orientalism, age/generation ‘Non-normative’ behaviours or identities often heavily policed by religious and legal guardians Mandatory reporting requirements (e.g. knowledge of illegal acts) Ethical issues Human subjects research ethics Ethics and human rights Intrusiveness: public health imperatives vs. sexual rights/privacy 19

20. CSS research: challenges cont. Enormous breadth of possible research topics, often occurring on a huge scale e.g. rape in war, teenage pregnancy, HIV Rapidly changing field, e.g. globalisation, commodification Cross-cultural challenges Dominance of public health approach Quantitative research with large sample sizes often considered more legitimate than qualitative, small sample size research Continually perceived incommensurability between qualitative and quantitative approaches and methods Reliability (replicability of findings) vs. validity (the strength of conclusions, inferences or propositions) 20

21. CSS research: challenges Many different disciplines involved in sexuality research Particular disciplines or intellectual approaches favour particular field methods and methodologies Social sciences and humanities Media and cultural studies Legal studies Women’s and gender studies Educational research … 21

22. Does CSS research matter? Research can affect social change—knowledge is power It can be influential in encouraging and teaching the next generation of sexuality researchers Effective, recognised research can lead to funding, career development, publishing, teaching, tenure, etc. Institutional and professional roles are changed by research It contributes to the expansion of established knowledge regarding an issue or topic It requires consideration of relationships and responsibilities shared between researchers and the researched 22

23. Ethical issues • Knowledge is power, but: • Who owns it? Who gets to use it? Who holds the power? • What is our relationship with, responsibility towards, and negotiated understanding with, those we are researching? • Requires reflexivity • Guided reading • Researching the Margins (2007) eds. Pitts and Smith, pp. 30-39 • Focus question: • Obtaining official ethics approval is an ethical requirement of research. What else might you need to consider, during the research process? (10 mins) • Feedback(15 mins) 23

24. Session 3.Conceptualising and designing CSS research 24

25. Main steps in research design Map the larger context & identify the key social issue or concern to be researched • Research is an iterative, not linear, process • The broad ‘segments’ of a research project are: Define the specific research project Fieldwork Analysis • Develop research outputs, disseminate findings

26. Starting a research project • Identify the key social issue or concern to be researched (what to research) by drawing on: • The larger context • Broad research purposes • What do we want to achieve? Why should we do this research? • Crucial audiences • Whom do we need to reach, target and inform in order to meet our research purposes? • Possible research outputs • What might we produce, to reach our audiences and meet our purposes? • Literature review • What knowledge already exists? Where are the gaps? 26

27. Starting a research project cont. • Define the specific research project • Give it a title • Make a statement about what you are trying to do • Bring the research focus to the fore, through the title • Don’t be obscure or too clever. Remember: keyword searches! • Define research objectives • Define your research questions

28. The larger context • Research occurs within a web of interlinking fields: • Political and social • Are conditions favourable? What types of funding opportunities are available, and what types of research are likely to get funded? • Professional/academic • Your work needs to fit the current agendas of industry, academia in general, and your discipline in particular • It should build upon and/or develop your own knowledge and expertise, foster your interest and passion, develop your professional field or discipline 28

29. Broad research purposes • Consider: • What is the larger social problem or issue to which your new research project will make a contribution? • e.g. gender-based violence, young people and sexuality, the media and sexuality etc. • What overarching impact do you hope this research will have • Bearing in mind the interlinking fields in which the research will occur? • Research purposes (or aims) should be ‘big picture’ • Preferably just 1-2 purposes • e.g. ‘This research aims to broaden knowledge and understanding of … and therefore contribute to …’ 29

30. Crucial audiences • Is it important that the research be done? • To whom? For whom? • Do you want to create change? If so, where and with whom? • Academe, colleagues in field, theorists? • Government, policy? • Action, programs, practices? • Direct stakeholders, funders, agencies? • Respondents, communities? 30

31. Possible research outputs • What would the research need to deliver, in order to reach the crucial audiences and achieve the research purposes? • Will you deliver a report, training materials, workshops? • Might different types of audience require different types of outputs? • Producing different kinds of outputs affects what kind of data or information your research needs to find • Take note: this may change over the life of the project, particularly if you undertake action research 31

32. The literature review • Why? • An expected part of grant applications • Sets the stage, through assessing knowledge to date • Knowledge of the social problem or issue, and of the larger context • Knowledge of the methodological ‘habits’ or theories surrounding that problem or issue, as well as of the larger context • Knowledge of gaps in existing literature • Enables identification of major players, theories, possible publication sites, audiences

33. The literature review cont. • How? • Searching around a topic, not just within it • Think laterally • Develop an up-to-date reference list, with academic quality citations (EndNote?) • Annotate readings for key themes emerging as you go • Online searching of databases, manual library searches • Allow the literature review to evolve with the research project • The literature review is the base on which academic research is built

34. Specific project design • Defining the specific project • What is its title? • Important to be clear, succinct and precise • One project cannot research everything: what part of the larger social problem or issue are you going to research? • e.g. in the larger social problem of issue of young people and sexuality, your new project will investigate: ‘the importance of sex education’ or ‘first sexual activity’, or ‘experiences of sexual coercion’, or ‘beliefs about love and romance’ etc. • What are its specific objectives (sometimes called goals)? • What is it that you want to do: e.g. ‘develop a better understanding of sex education curricula’ , or ‘uncover new knowledge about first sexual activity’ 34

35. Research questions • Research questions • Connection to theory • Provide the focus for your research • What do you seek answers to? • Be succinct, capture the theory in the question, and limit yourself to 2-4 core questions • Relationship between questions needs to be clear • either sequential, additional or hierarchical • Bear in mind the larger context and the project’s objectives • Research questions formulated before you consider the field methods • Can be refined as methodology continues to develop 35

36. Types of research questions • Either: • Questions to be answered or • Springboard to development or reconstruction of theory • Open-ended questions: • Not causal or directional, use exploratory terms (explore, discover, investigate) • Closed questions: • Seek to show causal link, look for definite answers (yes/no, points on a scale etc.) • Core question/s → subsidiary questions

37. Group work • Teenage pregnancy & contraception case study (Handout A) • Read handout (5 mins) • Define: • The overall research purpose • The crucial audiences • A specific research issue or problem • The possible outputs you might you aim for (based on the audiences) • The broad scope (and sites) for an initial literature search • The research project title • Your project objectives • Your project-specific research questions(30 mins) • Feedback(30 mins) 37

38. Next steps Project design + methodology, approach, field method(s) No one Critical Sexuality Studies methodology, but all CSS research is: Critical of objective claims to knowledge Attentive to the ways sexuality is invested with social and cultural meaning in specific contexts Reviewing methodology and connections between research design is part of the reflexive process Aiming for a methodologically coherent design 38

39. The practical aspects • Based on your researchquestions: • Where are you most likely to find the information (data) that will give you answers? • People tend to be central to finding answers in sexuality research • As individuals per se, as types of individuals, and/or as specifically nominated individuals • Sometimes clusters of people are more important; for example: • Communities (e.g. a gay community) • Sub-cultures (e.g. artists) • Locales (e.g. a village) • Cohorts (e.g. 15-year-old girls) • People with distinguishing characteristics (e.g. people with disabilities) or • Patterns of association (e.g. military hierarchies) • Defining your research object(s) and object boundaries is crucial to the research process • The ‘space(s)’ in which you will be asking questions and collecting information or data • Different types of research object: • Experiences • E.g. Events, places and times, histories, experiences of certain issues (health, sexuality) • Processes • E.g. institutions, relationships, interactions 39

40. Beyond people… • Consider looking beyond people as such, and towards: • Experiences e.g. particular events, places and times, certain issues (health, sexuality) • Processes e.g. institutions, relationships, interactions • Practices e.g. drug-taking, sexual, social, educational, sport • Ideas or concepts e.g. authority, hegemony, pedagogy, competitiveness, stigma, racism, homophobia, sin, pleasure • Useful research on all of the above could be carried out entirely through secondary sources e.g. collecting and analysing documentation 40

41. Sampling • Having identified your research ‘data source’ (people or things), you need a sampling framework • How big is your data source? • If you are looking at 15-year-old schoolgirls, the number will be very large • If you are looking at an organisation’s guideline documents, the number will be relatively small • Is it both feasible and necessary for you to involve all of your data source? • Does your approach call for a larger, statistically representative sample size (quantitative) or rich narrative data (qualitative)? • Do you want to generalise outwards from the data source, or do you want to show relevance to a broader population?

42. Don’t forget… • Decisions on who will be involved, and in what capacity, should all be based on your research questions • Supported by your literature review, research experience, key informant information etc. • Other players in the research process. These include: • Those who control access to the research object (gatekeepers) • Broader stakeholders (e.g. should there be an advisory group?)

43. Choosing field methods • What is the most suitable method for obtaining the data or information you require from your research data source? • Decision will be based on: • Experience (yours and others) • Feasibility • Budget? • Staff? • Time? • Research purposes, objectives and crucial audiences • Flexibility and reflexivity in the field • Disciplinary specialities

44. Who uses which field methods?

45. And then… • Approach and field methods determine analysis options • Thematic analysis, or statistical regression? • NVivo or SPSS? Printouts and scissors, or a calculator? • Large range of analytic approaches, again, often chosen based on disciplinary preferences • Regression analysis, multi-level analysis, analysis of variance … • Critical discourse analysis, thematic analysis, content analysis … • Analysis incorporated as an integral part of the research process (action research)?

46. Ethical issues • From the research design phase, begin to consider: • What possible physical or emotional risks could arise during the research process (including risk to the researchers)? • What ethics processes will you need to go through? • e.g. University, hospital, government department, national guidelines, NGO/INGO… • What requirements will you face? • e.g. data storage, information to be provided to participants, nature of informed consent, report back to those involved… 46

47. Ethical issues cont. • All processes for ethical approval require you to have clear, well thought-out rationale and methods for: • Recruitment • Gaining informed consent (written or oral) • In addition, researchers need to reflect on their moral responsibilities in terms of: • Participant safety & minimisation of intrusion • Promising confidentiality and/or anonymity • Gaining consent

48. Beyond ethics approval • Other ethical considerations: • Staff safety (physical and emotional) • Staff confidentiality agreements • Report-back provisions • Ensuring that publication or dissemination of research material is ethically acceptable to everyone involved • Your work will be peer-reviewed. Are there conflicts of interest?

49. Research design: a review • Iterative process • Identify the key social issue or concern to be researched • Pulling together the larger context, broad research purposes, crucial audiences, possible research outputs, literature review • Define the specific research project • Give it a title, define your research objectives, project-specific research questions • Decide your methodology, approach, field methods, analysis method • Undertake fieldwork • Analysis • Disseminate the findings (bearing in mind the crucial audiences and overall research purpose)

50. Group work • Returning to Handout A, review your research questions and design to date then identify: • People who might be involved in a research project, and how • (Research data source? Gatekeepers? Advisors?) • What research approach and field method(s) would you use? • What particular ethical challenges might arise? (30 mins) • Feedback (30 mins) 50