Motivation at Work Chapter 9

Motivation at Work Chapter 9

Introduction This lecture will: -Evaluate the nature of motivation Critically evaluate theories of motivation, including content and process theories Examine sociological theories of motivation including alienation, culture and work orientation Examine the application of theories of motivation in the workplace, and the issue of social class

The Nature of Work Motivation Motivation is a cognitive decision making process that influences the persistence and direction of goal directed behaviour: The focus of the literature is prescriptive, indicating a set of precepts or models of behaviour Motivation relates to organizational goals Motivation can be assessed in terms of quality of output Motivators can be intrinsic or extrinsic an example of an intrinsic motivator relates to self-esteemor the desire to do something an example of an extrinsic motivator is reward

Figure 9.1 - Examples of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators

Theories of Work Motivation Theories can be categorized as ‘content’ or ‘process’ theories of motivation Content theories relate to built-in needs or motivators and include: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer’s ERG theory McClelland’s six basic needs Process theories relate to conscious choices that lead to a specific type of work behaviour and include: Equity theory Expectancy theory

Content Theories Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs proposes that we have a set of built-in needs Basic needs are addressed first, then more advanced ones In practical terms the reconfiguration of work structures to give more empowerment can be seen as offering self-actualization Altderfer’s (1972) ERG Theory divides needs into three categories: Existence (E); Relatedness (R); Growth (G) Unlike Maslow, it is suggested that all levels are important at the same time McClelland (1961) suggests the need to satisfy six basic human needs: achievement, power, affiliation, independence, self-esteem and security

Figure 9.2 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 9.3 - Comparison of Maslow’s need hierarchy and Altderfer’s ERG theory

Figure 9.4 - Employee Needs, Personality and Work Behaviour Arnold and Bosnoff have created a variant of Altderfer’s model to suggest that employee satisfaction creates a positive effect relative to self-esteem and job importance

Process Theories (1) – Equity theory Equity Theory is based on a comparison of the ratio between employee input into a task and output (rewards) Inequity is unpleasant and can motivate changes in behaviour Adams made statements about the ratio of equity to inequity Contemporary systems of reward management and performance-related pay represent the influence of equity in the workplace

Figure 9.5 - Adam’s Conditions of Equity and Inequity

Process theories (2) - Expectancy Theory Developed by Vroom, this theory looks at the relationship of levels of output and desirable reward and between effort and performance: Effort-Performance Expectancy (E P) Performance-Outcome Expectancy (P O) The Attractiveness or valence of the outcomes (V) This can be represented by the equation: Effort = E ΣI x V According to this theory, employees choose the course of action with highest rewards – this is deemed a rational expectation

Figure 9.6 – Sample expectancy theory calculations • A further expectancy theory was developed by Porter and Lawlor: • This incorporates prior experience, communication, and attractiveness of particular outcomes into the expectancy calculations • It refines the idea of pay as a reward, attaching more value to the perception of equity

Process Theories (3) – Goal-setting theory Goal setting theory assumes positive motivational consequences for employees can be achieved by setting goals in participation: This approach is linked to Management by Objectives It is widely adopted in non-unionized workplaces

The Sociology of Motivation Sociologists have developed micro-level and macro-level approaches to investigate and understand worker behaviour at the workplace Three such approaches are: Alienation Culture Work orientation

Alienation • Can be viewed broadly as a condition of objective powerlessness • Is derived from Marx’s theories – workers are alienated from: • The products of their labour • The act of production • Social relations • Blauner extended the theory in 1964 – he said that there were four dimensions to alienation: • Powerlessness • Meaninglessness • Isolation • Self-estrangement • The Division of Labour and contemporary movements like Taylorism, are said to alienate...

Culture Culture can be manifested through physical structures, artefacts, and language It is unique to the group that constitutes the organization and its shared values (Schein) Culture can: Operate as a mode of control (a Holy Grail theory) Be the basis of expectancy theories of organization Act as the organizational glue through shared ritual and ceremony Create a shared identity

Work Orientation Work orientation investigates: The meaning that individuals give to their paid work The relative importance and function they assign to work within their lives as a whole Goldthorpe looked at the importance of the cash nexus and high level goals relative to the car industry in the 1960s Controversy attends the issue of motivants relative to gender It is arguable that men attach more significance to intrinsic rewards in low level employment while women have more social needs Advancement or bureaucratic orientation can be contrasted with instrumental work motivation (Goldthorpe, 1968)

Figure 9.7 - Integrating the Approaches This is a mix of the culture and work orientation models, complemented by the psychologically driven theory of work motivation Integrating the Approaches

Applying Motivation Theories (1) A pragmatic approach is needed, which links in with areas like HR practice and leadership styles Distinct types of worker activity will require a fine-tuning of particular theories. This can include: Different strategies for workers of the core as opposed to the periphery Different strategies for knowledge workers as opposed to more routine workers Of course, this raises questions about managerialism and the fairness of particular practices

Table 9.1 - Most Popular, most highly effective and least effective strategies for Knowledge Workers

Reward Design, Job Design & Leadership Style Reward design should ensure that employees are given rewards that they value This relates to aspects of extrinsic motivation and to expectancy and equity theories Job design should provide a good fit with employee values and abilities Core characteristics to consider are skill variety, task identity and task significance Perception of reward etc varies with different types of workers and gender Leadership style is an important feature of motivation: Autonomy suits knowledge workers Note the acronym SMART in relation to goals set Trust and participation leads to commitment and is encouraged by the promotion of fairness and equity in the workplace

Motivation at Work Chapter 9