Work Motivation

1. Work Motivation Chapter 12

2. Work Motivation: Overview Five Critical Concepts in Motivation Work Motivation Theories Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories The Application of Motivational Strategies

3. Work Motivation: Definition Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration 3 Dimensions Direction Intensity Persistence

4. Work Motivation: 5 Concepts Behavior: Action from which we infer motivation Performance: Evaluation of behavior Ability: Determinant of behavior Situational Constraints: Determinant of behavior Motivation: Determinant of behavior Performance as a Function of BEHAVIOR SITUATIONAL CONSTRAINTS x - = ABILITY MOTIVATION

5. Overview of Work Motivation Theories • Need theories • Cognitive theories • Job design theories • Behavioral theories

6. Work Motivation Theories: Need Hierarchy Theory Based on sequential ordering of human needs that individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression. • Maslow’s Need Hierarchy • Alderfer’s ERG Theory • McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory

7. Work Motivation Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization (Self-fulfillment) Esteem (Recognition from others) Social (Company and acceptance of others) Safety (Security & shelter) Physiological (Air, food, water, etc.)

8. Work Motivation Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory Self-Actualization (Self-fulfillment) Growth Esteem (Recognition from others) Relatedness Social (Company and acceptance of others) Existence Safety (Security & shelter) Physiological (Air, food, water, etc.)

9. Work Motivation Theories: McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory People with a high need for achievement (high n’Ach) will put more effort into work than people without this need (low n’Ach) High n’Achs tend to desire high levels of achievement whereas low n’Achs tend to only avoid failure Low n’Achs can be trained to develop a need for achievement

10. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity Theory: Motivation theory based on the social comparison process of examining the ratio of inputs and outcomes between oneself and a comparison other. Person compares themselves with Other Person perceived what they input into job Person perceives what they benefit from job Person compares input-benefit ratio of him/herself to Other Adams (1965)

11. self-outcomes other’s-outcomes vs self-inputs other’s-inputs Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity occurs when each person has equal ratios (e.g., 50:50) Underpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one’s own inputs and outcomes is lower than the ratio of a comparison other. Overpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one's own inputs and outcomes is greater that the ration of comparison other.

12. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory • You: 50 Other: 50 Fair/Equitable 50 50 • You: 50 Other: 75 Underpayment 50 50 • You: 75 Other: 50 Overpayment 50 50

13. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity theory posits that people who perceive an inequity will try to reduce inequity • Cognitive • Distort own inputs or outcomes • Distort Other’s inputs or outcomes • Change comparison Other • Behavior • Change inputs • Change outcomes • Get other to change inputs or outcomes • Quit job

14. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory • Equity Theory Underpayment Inequity Predictions • Hourly Wages • Workers will decrease effort • Decreases in product quality and quantity • Piece Rate Wages • To compensate for underpayment, workers would produce more, but much lower quality

15. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory • Equity Theory Overpayment Inequity Predictions • Hourly Wages • Workers should expend more effort (i.e., increase inputs) • Piece Rate Wages • Workers should expend more effort to produce fewer, but more high quality products

16. effort performance outcome expectancy instrumentality Work Motivation Theories: General Expectancy Theories • Vroom’s VIE theory – effort (force) is determined by: • Perceived effort-performance expectancies • Perceptions that performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentalities) • Valence of outcomes

17. Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory • Motivation is derived from relationships among: • Valence • value of outcomes • Instrumentality • performance-reward contingencies • Expectancy • effort-performance contingencies Force = Expectancy * Σ (Valences * Instrumentalities)

18. praise from parents good grades graduate school good job lack of social life less friends expectancies effort performance outcome no fun instrumentalities valences Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory studying

19. Work Motivation Theories: Locke’sGoal-Setting Theory • People set goals for themselves and they are • motivated to work toward these goals because • achieving them is rewarding • Goals affect task performance by • directing attention and action, • mobilizing energy expenditure or effort, • prolonging effort overtime (persistence) and • motivating the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment

20. Work Motivation Theories: Locke’sGoal-Setting Theory • Performance is best when: • Goals are specific • Goals are challenging • Workers have necessary ability • Rewards are clearly understood and provided • Management supports goal attainment • Provides necessary time & resources • Goals are internalized and accepted by employees • Feedback is provided

21. Work Motivation Theories: Self-Regulation Theories • Major components • Goals • Self-monitoring or self-evaluation • Role of feedback • Self-efficacy • Goal revision • Empirical tests of the theory • Evaluation of the theory

22. Work Motivation Theories: Job-based Theories Source of motivation is primarily in the content of the jobs employees perform • Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (also referred to as Motivation-Hygiene Theory) • Job Characteristics Theory

23. Work Motivation Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory • Meeting lower-level needs will prevent workers from becoming dissatisfied; they do not influence work motivation • hygiene factors • e.g., pay, fringe benefits, relations with coworkers, physical working conditions • Only conditions that allow people to fill upper-level needs for esteem and self-actualization will increase work motivation • Motivator factors • e.g., level of challenge and discretion, intrinsic interest, opportunities to be creative

24. Experienced meaningfulness Job Characteristics Theory Core job dimensions Critical Psychological states Personal and work outcomes Task identity Satisfaction Motivation Quality of Work Low turnover and absenteeism Skill variety Task significance Experienced responsibility Autonomy Knowledge of results Feedback Growth need strength

25. task identity skill variety task significance S X autonomy X feedback = motivation 3 Job Characteristics Theory

26. Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory • Reinforcement Theory • Based on principles of behaviorism • Reinforcement • a stimulus that increases the probability of any given behavior • Punishment • consequences that make a behavior less likely

27. Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory • Schedules of reinforcement • continuous • intermittent • fixed interval • variable interval • fixed ratio • variable ratio

28. Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories • Distal construct theories: Exert indirect effects on behavior • Proximal construct theories: Begin with the individual’s goals and characteristics of the workplace that directly influence behavior. • Genetic bases of motivation

29. Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories Will to achieve from Big 5 Personality Theory Genetics/Heredity Needs/Personality/Interests Need hierarchy theory Equity theory Motives Expectancy theory Cognitive choice Goal-setting theory Goals Feedback/ Expectation discrepancy Self-regulation theory Job characteristic theory Core job attributes Distal constructs Proximal Constructs

30. Seven Practices to Raise Motivation • Ensure that workers motives and values are appropriatefor the jobs on which they are placed • Make jobs attractive and consistent with workers’ motives and values. • Define work goals that are clear, challenging, attractive, and attainable.

31. Seven Practices to Raise Motivation • Provide workers with the personnel and material resources that facilitate their effectiveness. • Create supportive social environments. • 6. Reinforce performance. • 7. Harmonize all these elements into a consistent socio-technical system.

32. Application of Motivational Strategies • There is no “best” theory. • It may be necessary to match motivation strategies with varying organizational context.