THE PERSIANS

1. THE PERSIANS THE HEIGHT OF SOUTHWEST ASIA’S CLASSICAL SOCIETIES

2. THE ACHAEMENID EMPIRE • Persians and Medes are Iranians, related to Indo-Europeans • The Medes • Migrated from central Asia to Persia before 1000 B.C.E. • Indo-European speakers, sharing cultural traits with the Aryans • Persians were one of the tribes of Medes • Cyrus the Great (reigned 558-530 B.C.E.) • A tough, wily leader, military strategist • Became the king of the Persians in 558 B.C.E., all Medes in 548 BCE • Conquered Lydia, Chaldean Empires • Established vast empire stretching from India to Mediterranean • Viewed favorably in the Old Testament: allowed Jews to return home • Cambyses, son of Cyrus (re. 530-522 B.C.E.) • Conquered Egypt in 525 • Darius (re. 521-486 B.C.E.) • A young kinsman of Cyrus • Built the largest empire in world history: conquered Indus Valley • Ruled more than 70 ethnic groups • Built new capital at Persepolis, 520 B.C.E.

3. ADMINISTRATION • Divided the empire into 23 satrapies • Satraps (governors) • Appointed by the central government • Local officials were drawn from local peoples • Local policies included self-government, toleration • Satraps' power • Represent Emperor, maintain defense, collect taxes • Checked by military officers and "imperial spies“ • Checked by Zoroastrianism, codes of honor, fear of Emperor • Replaced irregular tribute payments with formal taxes • Military: largest in history until Romans, Chinese • Common levies from each province • Persian cavalry; Persian Immortals: elite shock troops • Mercenaries included Greeks • Standardization of coins and laws • Communication systems • Persian Royal Road links Susa (Asia Minor, Lydia to Susa, in Persia) • Postal stations with postal relay riders

4. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

5. PERSEPOLIS

6. THE WARS WITH GREECE • The Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.) • Ionian Greeks rebelled • Greek free city states sent aid to rebels • Persian rulers put down rebellion • Darius invaded Greece to punish Greeks • Won battle of Thermopolyae • Did not live long enough to finish job • Xerxes (reigned 486-465 B.C.E.) • Retreated from the policy of cultural toleration • Caused ill will and rebellions among subject peoples • Lost both land and sea battles to Greeks • Battles of Marathon • Battle of Salamis

7. ALEXANDER AND HIS HEIRS • Alexander of Macedon • Invaded Persia in 334 B.C.E. • Battle of Gaugamela, ended Achaemenid empire, 331 B.C.E. • Alexander burned the city of Persepolis, conquered whole empire • The Diadoche • Successor states to Alexander • Divided his empire between them • The Seleucids • Inherited the largest part of the former Achaemenid empire • Retained the Achaemenid system of administration • Met opposition from native Persians • Lost control over northern India and Iran

8. SUCCESSORS TO PERSIA • The Parthians • Overthrew Selecuids in 238 BCE • Based in Iran, extended to Mesopotamia • Retained some traditions of nomadic people • Formidable power of Parthian heavy cavalry because of alfalfa diet of horses • Established a mighty empire through East SW Asia by conquests • Portrayed themselves as restorers of the Persian tradition • Followed the example of the Achaemenids in administration • Clan leaders as satraps: potential threats for central government • Opposed expanding Roman empire, 1st century C.E. • Internal rebellion brought it down in the early 3rd century C.E. • The Sasanids • From Persia, claimed direct descent from the Achaemenids • Toppled the Parthians in 224 C.E., new capital at Ctesiphon • Government stronger, better organized, more absolute than Parthian • Traded throughout Arabia, SW Asia, Indian Ocean, Central Asia • Devout Zoroastrians much opposed to early spread of Christianity • Battled the Kushan Empire in the east • Battled the Roman and Byzantine empires in the west, 3rd century C.E. • In 651 C.E., the empire conquered by Arabs

9. IMPERIAL SOCIETY, ECONOMY • Social Development in Classical Persia • Nomadic character of early Persian society • Similar to the Aryans in India • Importance of family and clan relationships • Imperial bureaucrats • Needed educated bureaucrats • Shared power with warriors and clan leaders • Free classes • In the city: artisans, craftsmen, merchants, civil servants • In the countryside: peasants - building underground canals (qanat) • Slaves in both cities and countryside • Economic Foundations of Classical Persia • Agriculture was the economic foundation • Main crops: Barley and wheat • Supplemental crops: peas, lentils, mustard, garlic, onions, cucumber • Large agricultural surplus • Trade • Commercial zone from India to Egypt • Political stability promoted growth of trade • Standardized coins (Gold Darics were first in world), good trade routes • Specialization of production in different regions

10. PERSIAN RELIGION • Zarathustra and his faith • Earliest Persian religion resembled that of the Aryans • Zoroastrianism, emerged from teachings of Zarathustra • The Gathas • Zoroastrian teachings, transmitted orally, many perished • Preserved later in writing, by magi • Compilation of the holy scriptures, ZendAvesta, under Sasanid dynasty • Zarathustra's own writing survived, known as Gathas • Zoroastrian teachings • Ahura Mazda as a supreme deity, with six lesser deities • Cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda and AngraMainyu (Ahriman, Shaitan) • Heavenly paradise and hellish realm as reward and punishment • The material world as a blessing • Moral formula: good words, good thoughts, good deeds • Popularity of Zoroastrianism • Attracted Persian aristocrats and ruling elites • Darius regarded Ahura Mazda as supreme God • The faith was most popular in Iran • Sizable followings in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt, and other regions

11. RELIGIONS OF SALVATION • Zoroastrian community suffered during Alexander's invasion • Zoroastrianism was the official religion during Sasanid rule • The Zoroastrians' difficulties • Extreme rivalries with Christianity (Orthodox, Monophysites) • Arabs conquered Sasanid empire, seventh century C.E. • Some Zoroastrians fled to India • Remaining Zoroastrians converted to Islam • Few faithful Zoroastrians still exist in modern day Iran • Other faiths: Buddhism, Christianity, and Manichaeism • Influence of Zoroastrians • Influence on Jewish religion: belief in future reward and punishment • Influence on Christianity: concepts of heaven and hell • Later influenced Islam; one of Muhammad’s protected faiths