Islamic Civilization: Pt.2 Islam Evolving -- February 6-8; 13

Islamic Civilization: Pt.2 Islam Evolving -- February 6-8; 13

The Umayyad Caliphate Prophet Muhammad, 622–632Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

The Umayyad Caliphate

Islam Evolving What did conversion mean in social sense? Proliferation of households in which ‘dependents’ became important members (men but especially woman) Common for free-born Arabs to be given war captives as rewards, payment: relationships developed – conversion, manumission often followed

Islam Evolving Increasingly common: Contracts arranging for manumission after certain period of service Or after certain payment Concubines becoming wives (or at least their children being adopted by masters) Households HUGELY important ‘arenas’ of conversion that in turn re-shaped social relations between non-Arabs and Arabs

Islam Evolving From captive to ‘Freedman’: While some evidence exists of free non-Arabs, non-Muslims occupying senior administrative positions – mostly dominated by ‘freedmen’ Registers reveal significant presence of ‘former captives’ in higher echelons of regime ( eg government, army) [for examples of latter, see previous two lectures ]

Islam Evolving Example for Administration [Hoyland]: Raja ibn Haywa originally from southern Iraq, captured, settled with Arab soldier in Palestine-Jordan abilities brought him to attention of Abd al-Malik was tutor to his son (future caliph Suleiman) Managed finances for construction of Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem) Served several times as Diplomatic emissary

Islam Evolving How do we know about when/why conversion occurred? Chronicle John Nikisu, noted ‘some of his countrymen apostatizing’ [see first discussion document] Only from time of Abd al-Malik does evidence suggests it is ‘common’

Islam Evolving Bishop advises his ‘flock’ about how to handle conversion (is therefore both common and important) Apostates can receive communion on death bed if repentant Apostates who return to Christianity can do so without being re-baptised – must do penance Christian wives of Muslims threatening conversion should be addressed: offer them communion but with penance

Islam Evolving Why they converted. . . Rates varied: Jews – long experience of living as minority under foreign rule, conversion minimal Zoroastrian (Christians): few converts in rural areas but heavily dependent on patraonage in cities – when Christian patrons lost power, tended to ‘convert’ to Muslim patrons Children of mixed marriages ‘counted’ as Muslims – encouraged interaction, intermarriage, conversions

Islam Evolving Late Umayyad Islam: Descendants of converts born into Islam Increasingly wanted input into their religion and wanted to reconcile it with former culture Facilitated by fact that what was ‘known’ was verbal: the Prophet’s ‘sayings’ were its basis no established system of clergy: interpretation in first centuries following Muhammad open to all – including non-Arab converts

Islam Evolving Many took advantage of moment to help elaborate new worldview [Hoyland]: [Note: many of these, in turn, were ‘former slaves’ -- so also relevant to discussion above] Examples: Captive from Balk: author of earliest extant Qur’an commentary Son of captive from Nubia: top legal authority in Egypt

Islam Evolving Examples (cont.) Grandson of captive from Iraq: author of most famous biography of Muhammad Grandson of captive from Anatolia: collector of the Prophet’s sayings ( basis of hadith) Grandson of captive of Kabul: Abu Hanifa – name given to one of four major law schools Son of captive Daylam: expert on ancient arabic Poetry

Islam Evolving All (examples) born during rule of Abd al-Malik: Can be seen as ‘product’ of his Islamizing policies [earlier lecture] Reflects important changes in larger picture: non-Arab converts were successfully climbing the social ladder

Islam Evolving Apocryphal story recounted by Hoyland: Abd al-Malik asked scholar about religious authorities across the empire: ‘Arab or non-Arab Muslims’? Scholar: ‘almost all non-Arabs’ Abd al-Malik: ‘so soon they’ll predominate in the pulpits and Arabs will sit below…’

Islam Evolving Scholar: ‘But – it is all a matter of religion – whoever assimilates it will be in charge and whoever neglects it will lose out’ Hoyland: “ what it meant to be Arab was changing” and this was intricately connected to how Islam itself was changing

Islam Evolving Important: Earlier genealogical, geographical definition of being ‘Arab’ giving way to “cultural definition” Someone who spoke Arabic, had Arabic name, invested in cultural and moral norms of conquest society – in other words, became Muslim – WAS ARAB Arab – Muslim identity becoming fused but in cultural rather than ethnic terms

Islam Evolving Hoyland: Arab Empire became immigrant society Not because of people moving from country to country BUT because they were moving from positions of conquered to conquerors – in cultural as well as social terms Worth pointing out: many who were part of this process were actually from ‘other countries’ (captives and their descendants) – so really was about BOTH geographical and social movement

Islam Evolving By end of Umayyad era: Muslims of non-Arab origin found everywhere in society, in all social levels short of the Caliph Marriage between Arab and non-Arab Muslims initially discouraged But as latter became so important to upper-levels of society, it was natural extension

Islam Evolving Example: Yazid I: his maternal aunt married freedman – no one publically acknowledged it but even at this early era, it was accepted Grandson of captive from Isfahan who was financial secretary to Umayyad administration and affiliated with high status family – able to marry woman of Arab ethnicity Important ‘restrictions’ on intermarriage continued to give way rapidly after 750

Islam Evolving Elevation of Islam: In early days of empire, no public celebration of Islam per se: no wish to antagonize, consistent with policies of ‘live and let live’ as long as taxes paid Changed dramatically under Abd al-Malik

Islam Evolving Islam under Abd al-Malik: reunification First time that coins, documents, material objects “emblazoned” with Qur’anic slogans Entrances to monuments, buildings displayed Arabic homages to Allah and the Prophet

Islam Evolving Official slogans using Qur’anic verses (sura) to challenge Christianity [moving on from personal ‘challenges’ to enemies, like Byzantine Emperor – refer to last lecture] Sura 112 “God the one, God the eternal. He did not beget and was not begotten”

Islam Evolving Inscription on ‘Dome of the Rock’: “Oh God, bless Your Messenger and Your servant Jesus son of Mary. Peace be on him the day he was born, and the day he dies, and the day he shall be raised alive! Such was Jesus, son of Mary, (this is) a statement of the truth concerning which they doubt. It befitteth not (the Majesty of) God that He should take unto Himself a son. Glory be to Him!”

Islam Evolving Elevation/evolution of Islam: inevitably led to demotion of other Religions in society Several decades after Abd al-Malik: lawyers worked out legal framework for incorporating all faiths into an Islamic Society Significance of late 7th – early 8th centuries: shift from concept of empire as one of ‘conquerors and conquered’ to one of ‘Muslims and non-Muslims’

Islam Evolving Islam: an idea, a system of belief that had underpinned various political visions, not to mention real political power – Was becoming an institution – one that could in turn begin to shape society along its own, religious lines

Islam Evolving Longer term significance of Conversions: When non-Arabs in army, administration convert – increasingly attaches idea that ‘conquerors’ are Muslim Reinforces idea that conversion is ‘good’ and beneficial Flip side of coin: those who are not (converted) are not Muslim and therefore ‘conquered’ – inferior in at least a social, political sense

Islam Evolving Umar II 717-20: (nephew of Abd al-Malik) Era when we first have evidence of discrimination [Hoyland]: Christian testimony against Muslims not accepted; Blood Money [diya – compensation for the taking of a life] calculated as less for Christian than Muslim]) [Hoyland]: suggests that accelerated discrimination linked to disastrous siege of Constantinople (717-18)

Islam Evolving Legal system: protection and discrimination Source of many practices: Byzantine (e.g. limitations on Jews re:building new synagogues, giving testimony against Christians) Persian (distinctions between nobles and commoners re: clothing, hairstyles, behaviour)

Islam Evolving Legal system: taxation Combined evolution of conversions and financial needs of state made ‘taxation’ central issue [Hoyland]: by time of Umar II, Arabs had choice – either prevent increasing number of Muslim converts (who by becoming Muslim sought to avoid paying taxes) OR change taxation system (reduce benefits attracting people to Islam, channel more ‘Islamic wealth’ to state)

Islam Evolving Chose the latter: most significant for Islam ‘Poll tax’: generally understood as price for remaining non-Muslim Was ‘reinterpreted’ as alms – to be paid by Muslims evidence from Egypt shows that ‘giving of alms’ had become compulsory and was being ‘collected like a tax’ by 730:

Islam Evolving “God sent his prophet Muhammad, may God praise him, with guidance and the true religion and everything that God approves of for his sorshippers. On those belonging to the people of the religion of Islam, the upright religion, God has imposed an alms-tax (sadaqa) on their property in order to purify them. . . Give a receipt for everything that you have taken from each person … with their name, the name of their father, their tribe and village …” [Hoyland pp.200-1]

Islam Evolving By the end of the Umayyad dynasty, the privilege that had accrued to Arabs in their ‘conquest society’ from its early days – no longer existed The evolution of Islam as a societal institution was both part of this change – and a consequence of it.

Islamic Civilization: Pt.2 Islam Evolving -- February 6-8; 13