Diction

1. Diction Lecturer: Yetta

2. What is Diction? • Diction is the choice of words which expresses the writer’s ideas and feelings exactly in speech or writing.

3. Why Diction? • “The difference between the almost right word and the right word is really a large matter – this is the difference between the lightning-bug and the lightning”. (Mark Twain)

4. Why Diction in Writing? • Choosing the right word in writing is more important than in speech, for we cannot use gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, or physical setting itself to clarify the meaning when writing as we do when speaking to a live audience.

5. How?

6. Focal Points • 1. Using Exact Words • 2. Using Words Economically • 3. Using Fresh Words • 4. Overcoming Chinglish • 5. Using Figurative Language

7. 1. Using Exact Words • 1.1 Denotation and Connotation • 1.2 Concrete Words and Abstract Words • 1.3 General Words and Specific Words • 1.4 Formal and Informal Words

8. 1.1 Denotation & Connotation (Reference – thoughts about the word) (Referent- what the word stands for) (Symbol-the word) The Semantic Triangle

9. 1.1 Denotation & Connotation (Reference – thoughts about the word) (Referent- what the word stands for) (Symbol-the word) winter The Semantic Triangle

10. 1.1 Denotation & Connotation (Reference – thoughts about the word) (Referent- what the word stands for) The coldest season of the year. (Symbol-the word) winter The Semantic Triangle

11. 1.1 Denotation & Connotation (Reference – thoughts about the word) desolate, icy, bitter, barren, snow, cold, chill, white (Referent- what the word stands for) The coldest season of the year. (Symbol-the word) winter The Semantic Triangle

12. (Reference – thoughts about the word) (Referent- what the word stands for) (Symbol-the word) home The Semantic Triangle

13. (Reference – thoughts about the word) (Referent- what the word stands for) the place where one lives (Symbol-the word) home The Semantic Triangle

14. (Reference – thoughts about the word) warmth, shelter, parents, comfort, coziness, safety (Referent- what the word stands for) the place where one lives (Symbol-the word) home The Semantic Triangle

15. 1.1.1 Definitions • Denotation: the literal meaning or primary meaning of a word etc.; • Connotation: meanings implied by a word etc. in addition to its literal or primary meaning. • e.g. Laughter drives winter from the mind. My hometown is most beautiful in winter. - To give more examples: bee, computer, etc.

16. 1.1.2 Avoidance • A. Avoid incorrect denotation from confusion of similar words or similar referents (check the similar dictionary). - e.g. diary vs. dairy bacteria vs. viruses; Malapropism: p 262.

17. B. Avoid incorrect connotation contained by synonyms (distinguish word colors). For example: NeutralFavorableUnfavorable well-known famous notorious smell aroma stench rich nourishing fattening

18. C. Avoid richly connotative words in factual description though they are useful in personal descriptions. For example: • To describe a city, we usually use : location, size, population, history, special local products, geography, etc.

19. Task 1.1: identify the word of rich connotation in each pair of the following words: country / motherland water / H2O mother / female parent children / offspring odour / aroma

20. 1.2 Concrete & Abstract Words • Concrete words: tangible, material things that can be experienced with the senses; • Abstract words: qualities or conditions other than specific objects. - e.g. sweetness, book, fulfillment, bag

21. 1.3 General & Specific Words • 1.3.1 Definitions: • General words: entire groups or class (classifying); • Specific words: explicit, particular examples of a group or class (describing). - e.g. my colleague, his pet, human being, animal, building, bikini

22. 1.3.2 “General” and “specific” are relative terms, namely, there are degrees of generality, as in: - building / house / log cabin; - clothing / swimsuit / bikini.

23. 1.3.3 Abstract words are often but notnecessarily general; similarly, concrete words are often but not necessarily specific. -e.g. amusement / the game of football / football games / the 11th Asian games; old age / senility / old people / my grandpa.

24. 1.3.4 Avoid utility words or all-purpose words (usually abstract and general words); instead, give concrete and / or specific illustrations when necessary. • For example: • To describe the odor in a room, instead of “good” and “bad”, we can use precise and specific words: “stale”, “dusty”, “fragrant”, “smoky”, etc.

25. Ways to make words and sentences specific (p269) : • Using exact names; • Using lively verbs; • Using descriptive words (modifiers) before nouns; • Using words that relate to the five senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch.

26. Task 1.3 : identify the general words or phrases in the following sentences and replace them by specific ones: • A lot of people are threatened by pollution. • Cities have their problems. • I love sports. • She can go to word by several means of transportation.

27. 1.4 Formal & Informal Words • 1.4.1 Formal Diction • Formal or learned language is expected in presidential addresses, eulogies, academic articles, legal documents, etc. -e.g. gentlemen, impoverished, wealthy, intelligent, television, perhaps

28. 1.4.2. Informal Diction • Informal diction, using familiar words, contractions, colloquialisms and slang, occurs in casual speech and other informal occasions. -e.g. exam, plane, guys, you know, I think, sort of, I’m, you’d, big deal, etc.

29. 1.4.3 Popular Diction • Popular diction falls between formal and informal diction. It uses some familiar words and , occasionally, contractions, just like informal diction; it also employs learned words when the audience and the occasion warrant it, just like formal diction. It is commonly used in most college writing, textbooks, newspapers, non-fictions best-sellers.

30. Task: formal or informal? • Although it is a commonplace that in American literature there are few writers of really major rank. • It was supposed to be a big meal, because they gave you steak. The reason they did that was because a lot of guys’ parents come up to school on Sunday.

31. 2. Using Words Economically • 2.1 What is economical writing • 2.2 Sources of uneconomical writing • 2.3 Various ways to achieve economy

32. 2.1 Definition of Economical Writing • Economical means “thrifty, sparing, avoiding waste or extravagance.” Economical writing is concise by using as few words as possible to convey the message clearly.

33. 2.2 Sources of Uneconomical Writing • Uneconomical writing is repetitious and wordy. There are various sources: • A. “Deadwood” expressions like “obviously”, “I feel”, “by way of explanation”, as in: • With reference to your plan, it seems like a workable one. • Revised: Your plan seems workable.

34. B. “Circumlocution” expressions by taking a roundabout way in writing, as in: • The results were a unique nature. • Revised: The results were unique. • It is not unlikely that he will run for election. • Revised: He will probably run for election.

35. C. Unnecessary repetition, as in: • In this modern world of today, people never walk when they can ride. • Without a doubt, this month has certainly been the coldest January on record. • We found an old antique clock in the attic. • The lab technician found the experiment difficult. The research chemist also found it hard.

36. C. Unnecessary repetition, as in: • In this modern world of today, people never walk when they can ride. • Without a doubt, this month has certainly been the coldest January on record. • We found an old antique clock in the attic. • The lab technician found the experiment difficult. The research chemist also found it hard.

37. 2.3 Ways to Achieve Economy • A. Do away with deadwood. • Whenever anyone called for someone to help him do some certain thing, Jim was always the first to volunteer and lend his help for the cause. • One of the most difficult decisions I have made in my life was whether or not I should go to college after I finished high school or not go to college after high school.

38. 2.3 Ways to Achieve Economy • A. Do away with deadwood. • Whenever anyone called for someone to helphimdo some certain thing, Jim was always the first to volunteer and lend his help for the cause. • One of the most difficult decisions I have made in my life was whether or not I should go to colle.ge after I finished high school or not go to colle.ge after high school.

39. B. Reduce clauses to phrases and phrases to words (No. 2 and 5; see 282, 287). • It seems that in any unpleasant situation with which we are confronted in life, the experience is made to seem less painful to us if we have someone to encourage us. (31 words). • Revised: Any unpleasant experience seems less painful if someone encourages us. (10 words)

40. While he is teaching in class, he noticed that there was a fire. • Revised: While teaching in class, he noticed a fire. • He accepted the award given by the company. • Revised: He accepted the company’s award.

41. C. Delete the empty words (No. 3 and 6 in the textbook, see p284,288). • At the time of registration, students are required to pay their fees. • Because of the increase in enrollments, some classes in sociology are closed by early in the morning. • Speed is also an important factor.

42. C. Delete the empty words (No. 3 and 6 in the textbook, see p284,288). • At the time of registration, students are required to pay their fees. • Because of the increase in enrollments, some classes in sociology are closed by early in the morning. • Speed is also an important factor.

43. In spite of the fact that he is lazy, I like him. • In many instances, students write their papers just before the deadline. • He glanced he in a suspicious manner. • She seldom talks on any subject of controversial nature. • His father has an execute type of position.

44. In spite of the fact that he is lazy, I like him. • In many instances, students write their papers just before the deadline. • He glanced he in a suspicious manner. • She seldom talks on any subject of controversial nature. • His father has an execute type of position.

45. D. Remove the introductory “there is / are” , or “it is” (except for its rhetorical effect). - There were nine girls who went to the party. - There are many reasons why business fails. - It is the main actress who arrives first.

46. 3. Using Fresh Words • Freshness of diction does not mean inventing new words; instead, it means avoiding over-familiar words and expressions. The greatest enemies of fresh diction are cliches, vogue words, nonce words, and fine writing.

47. A. Minimizing the use of cliches (陈词滥调). • Definition: cliches are trite, overworked, automatic phrases. They are phrases rather than single words; the effect of staleness arises from the frequent use of a particular group of words together. See p294 - 296 for the checklist. -e.g. as a matter of fact, believe it or not, it goes without saying, last but not least

48. Identifying: if an entire phrase comes to mind when we think of one word, that phrase is probably a cliché (like “fresh…as a daisy”). • Avoiding: it is almost impossible to avoid the use of cliches completely, but it can be minimized by a continue process of extensive reading and further practice in writing.

49. B. Avoiding vogue words (时髦词,时兴词). • Definition: vogue words, or buzzwords, are words or phrases that are popular and overused for a brief period of time but then drop back into relative obscurity. -e.g. syndrome, bottom-line

50. Distinguishing vogue words from slang : in their normally brief life of overuse, vogue words resemble slang. But they often come from scholarly or professional vocabularies and are used by a wider range of people.