MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1914

1. MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1914 SOCIAL AND GENDER STRUCTURES

2. GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION • Increased Population • Increased Urbanization • Increased migration, immigration • Increased wealth • Spread of wealth to middle class • New consumerism • New roles for women, poor, minorities • Change in child rearing, childhood • Rise of a technical, managerial class • Invention of leisure time, common culture • Increasing demand for social reform, worker rights • Increased life span, living standard; decreased death rate • Emancipation of slaves, serfs

3. WESTERN INDUSTRY & FAMILIES • New social classes created by industrialization • Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth • Middle class: managers, accountants, new professionals • Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable • Dramatic changes to the industrial family • Sharp distinction between work and family life • Worked long hours outside home • Family members led increasingly separate lives • Fathers and Sons • Gained increased stature, responsibility in industrial age • Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers • Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic • Imposed these values on working-class men • Workers often resisted work discipline • Working-class culture: bars, sports, gambling, outlets away from work • Mothers and daughters • Opportunities narrowed by industrialization • Working women could not bring children to work in mines or factories • Middle-class women expected to care for home and children • Increased opportunities for women to work in domestic service • Children • Many children forced to work in industry to contribute to family support • 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor • 1881, primary education became mandatory in England

4. LIMITS TO REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS • Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: women's rights • Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women • Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights • Mary Astell attacked male dominance in the family • Mary Wollstonecraft: women possessed same natural rights as men • Women crucial to revolutionary activities • French revolution granted women rights of education, property, no vote • Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical • Women made no significant gains in other revolutions • Gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe • Seneca Falls Declaration of Women’s Rights • Women became involved in abolitionist, temperance, reform movements • Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals: slavery • Movements to end slave trade • Began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions • In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade • US ended it in 1807; other states followed • Illegal slave trade to Brazil, in Africa, internal within US continued • Movements to abolish slavery: difficult because of property rights • In Haiti, much of South America, end of slavery came with independence • In Western society, campaign against slave trade became abolish slavery • Abolition • In Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888 • Last areas to abolish slavery were Africa and Muslim world • Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not political equality

5. ABOLITION OF SLAVERY • Process advocated with Enlightenment, Methodism • Ideas of equality of men becomes widespread • Philosophes attacked slavery, slave trade • Methodism, spreading in 18th, 19th centuries condemned slavery • William Wilberforce campaigned to end slavery, slave trade all his life • Process expanded by Revolutions, Women’s Movements • Many revolutionaries advocated ending slavery • Many revolutionary governments abolished slavery (France) • Haitian slave revolt scares American slave holders • Women advocated end to slavery as a corollary to gender equality • Process realized by the British and Americans • British parliament outlawed slave trade; US ended slave trade in 1808 (had internal slave trade) • British, US navies enforce ban; hang slavers, freed slaves to Sierra Leone (Amistad Mutiny) • Latin American revolutions abolish slavery during revolutions • British emancipate slaves in 1833 throughout their empire • Civil Wars, Emancipations and Manumissions • US abolished slavery through Force of Arms, Civil War • Emancipation Proclamation 1863 • 14th, 15th, 16th Amendments of 1866 • Russia abolished serfdom in 1863 • Brazil emancipated and manumitted its slaves in 1888 • Princess Regent of Brazil abolished slavery in political fight with land owners • Brazilian elite abolish monarchy, paid slave holders for their lost slaves • Slavery trade still existed in Muslim world, Africa, East Africa (British suppress in 1870s) • Contract labor, share cropping, indentured servitude, tenant farming remained • Racial equality not included as part of abolition

6. CHANGES IN WESTERN SOCIETY AFTER 1850 • Changes for workers • Better wages • Decrease of working hours • Rise of leisure time • Increased health, physical risks • Growth of white collar work force • Managerial • Entrepreneurial • Bureaucratic workers of government • Secretarial, office workers • Growth of blue collar work force • Industrial • Technical • Miners • Decrease in ratio of farmers to whole society • Technology increased productivity • Increased productivity lower prices, reduced need for farmers • Farmers began to migrate to cities, industry; immigrate abroad • Increased roles for women due to industrialization, education

7. AMERICAN MULTI-RACIAL SOCIETIES • The United States • By late 19TH century • United States was a multicultural society • Dominated by white elites • Native peoples had been pushed onto reservations • Dawes Act, 1887: encouraged natives to farm on marginal land • Slaughter of buffalo threatened plains Indians' survival • Children sent to boarding schools, lost native language, traditions • Freed slaves often denied civil rights • Northern armies forced South to undergo Reconstruction • After Reconstruction, a violent backlash overturned reforms • South segregated; blacks denied opportunities, political rights • American women's movement had limited success • "Declaration of Sentiments" issued by American feminists in 1848 • Sought education, employment, and political rights • Migrants • 25 million Europeans to America from 1840-1914 • Hostile reaction to foreigners from "native-born" Americans • Newcomers concentrated in districts like Little Italy and Chinatown • Antagonism to Asians led to legal exclusion of Chinese and Japanese migrants • Brazil and the United States had many similarities • Key difference was that Brazil had a higher percentage of blacks, mixed populations • Brazil avoided a civil war and emancipated peacefully • Interior of Brazil remained largely unsettled, unexploited; Indians mistreated

8. NEO-EUROPEAN CONTRASTS • Neo-Europes • Defined: Settler colonies which came to resemble European societies • In all practical purposes they were part of the Western World • Canada • Ethnic diversity beyond dominant British and French populations • Significant minority of indigenous people displaced by whites • Blacks • Free after 1833 but not equal • Former slaves, some escaped from United States • Chinese migrants came to goldfields of British Columbia, worked on railroad • Late nineteenth and early twentieth century, waves of European migrants • Expansion into Northwest Territories increased British and French conflicts • Northwest Rebellion • Led by the métis, descendents of French traders and native women • Conflict between natives, métis, and white settlers in west, 1870s and 1880s • Louis Riel, leader of western métis and indigenous peoples • Riel organized a government and army to protect land and trading rights • Canadian authorities outlawed his government and exiled him, 1870s • In 1885 • Riel again led métis resistance against railroads and British settlements • Rebels were subdued and Riel was executed for treason • French Canadians suspicious of British elites after Northwest Rebellion • Australia, New Zealand (and to a lesser degree, South Africa) resemble Canada • Aborigines, Maoris, Bantus all driven from lands, placed in reservations • Some examples of resistance by Zulu, Maoris to British settlement • In all except South Africa, large European immigration overwhelmed natives

9. LATIN AMERICAN SOCIETY • Latin American societies • Organized by ethnicity and color, legacy of colonialism • European descendants dominate all aspects of state, economic, social life • Europeanization of all aspects, classes, activities of society • Bipolar society • Male vs. Female • Elite vs. Masses • White vs. Colored • Urban vs. rural • Castes • Legally abolished by revolutions but de jure is not de facto • Stigma of color and former status prevented much change • Liberal reforms, Positivism often sacrificed legal rights, color for economic wealth, profit • Large-scale migration in nineteenth century brought cultural diversity • Small number of Chinese in Cuba assimilated through intermarriage • East Indians in Trinidad, Tobago preserved cultural traditions • European migrants made Buenos Aires "the Paris of the Americas“ • Most cultural diverse society was Brazil with Europeans, Blacks, Indians, mixed • Male domination • Central feature of Latin American society in nineteenth century • Machismo: culture of male strength, aggression • Women’s Rights • Women barred legally from any influence; remained under nearest male’s influence • No significant women's movement • Aristocratic women more constrained than lower classes • Poor women worked, often controlled local markets • Efforts to improve education girls increased opportunities for women (as teachers)

10. SOCIETY OUTSIDE OF THE WEST • Westernization or Modernization? • Reform often equated with loss of traditional rights • Westernization supported only by small group, usually intellectuals • Modernization often limited only to industrialization • Imperialism • Ethnic elites often imitated western society • Nationalism equated with need to preserve tradition • Social Groups • Conservative Elites • Europeans left traditional elites in power under colonial supervisors • Older elites become status quo, often unwilling to reform • Middle Class and Intellectual Elites • Often a new group produced by exposure to westerners, industrialization, commerce • Many expressed their new found force in universities, bureaucracy, civil service, technocrats • Often worked with westerners, colonialists to become hope for future independence • Later would form the core of the leaders of the anti-colonial revolutions, revolts • Industrial workers • Small force outside of Japan but it did become influential in some countries • Peasants and farmers • Remained the bulk of most of the world’s population • Very suspicious of reform, change unless it insured their property rights • Tended to be hostile to technology, outside influences • Outsiders or Foreigners • Many colonial powers used outsiders to run their empires or brought in labor from elsewhere • Groups formed isolated, often hated groups by most classes of older societies

11. EMPIRES AND SOCIETY • Imperialism disrupted old social patterns • Rearranged social hierarchy to suit occupiers’ needs, understandings • Europeans, Americans always on top of social hierarchy, lived in capitals, owned wealth • Used existing colonial differences to divide locals, control colonies • Colonial boundaries cut across ethnic, tribal boundaries further dividing peoples • Often used minorities including hated ones to administer colonies • Europeans often imported other colonial peoples to administer different colonies • Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century • Glorious Little Wars were often rebellions, resistance to Western encroachment • Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anti-colonial publications • Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule • Hawaii: Locals resented Japanese, Chinese immigrants as much as Americans • South Africa: Anti-Apartheid movement began amongst Hindu laborers • "Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century • Race became the measure of human potential • Europeans considered superior • Non-White Europeans were considered inferior and needed civilization • Gobineau divided humanity into 4 main racial groups, each with traits • Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination • Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism • Assumed moral superiority of Europeans = White Racial Supremacy • Racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of Koreans • Colonizers kept themselves separate from locals, created segregated communities • Westerns strongly discouraged from any marriage, mixing with locals

12. WOMEN IN SOCIETY • Active in Revolutions, Change but limited results 1750-1914 • Women served as auxiliaries to men • Would not press changes • Women tended to lack mass support • From legislators • From other women • Female revolutionaries • Tended to put class interests above gender issues • Favored social reform, economic relief • Initially very influential in French Revolution • Women belief that their place was at home, with children • Restoration of Conservative elite often limited any gains by women • Post-Revolutionary Era Women’s Rights • Industrialization radically altered working women’s roles publicly and privately • Women moved into the work force in great numbers • Women began to earn some money, independence, began to organize • Women often still held responsible for home, children, family too • Political activism, issues resurrected by middle class, upper class women • Learned to publish and to organize; promoted education • Political activism tended towards • Opposition to state supported prostitution • Aide to unwed mothers, orphans, widows with children • Temperance Leagues were largely dominated by women • Women became very active in abolitionism, peace movements • Suffrage Movement • Women demanded right to vote; strongest in settler countries where women had major influence • Came slowly: 1 nation in 1900; 3 in 1910; 15 in 1920

13. CULT OF DOMESTICITY • Gender and Social Changes produced Industrial, Agriculture Revolutions • Decreased death rate from child birth • Women tend to have fewer children as more survive • Death of women in child birth raises live span of women over that of men • First time in history women began to live longer than men • 19TH Century Social Ideal • Common to West, similar traditions in non-Western cultures • Women were expected to take care of family • Children, home were more important • Women expected to have children, look after the family • Public roles of women limited • Industrial Revolution changes, threatens ideal • Women acquire a public role • Women admitted to work force in great numbers • Acquired purchasing power, influence • Acquired increased independence from husbands • Extra income helped family, increased family health • Reality Was • Female workers not treated same as males • Women with families still had to take care of families • Child Rearing Changes • Prior to 19th century: 1/3 children die in first year – not much attachment until one year old • More interest in children as they survive; fewer children in family; more quality time • Relationship between children, parents now much closer • Tendency to introduce earlier childhood education, compulsory primary education

14. WOMEN & IMPERIALISM • European Women and Imperialism • Much evidence that European women actively supported imperialism • Tended to encourage, support Western ideas of racism, morality, domesticity and violence • Non-Western Women and Their Rights • Emancipation often meant liberation from older traditions, husbands • Political emancipation, nationalism often took first place over women’s issues • Progress was slower abroad than in the west, if it came at all • Emancipation or change often considered too radical, western • Many western men had foreign mistresses, mixed families independent of European wife, family • African Women • Men often forced to work away from family: women took over male roles: Herding, Farming • Colonists often needed domestic labor and hired African women but little real change • India • British outlawed widow burning (sati) • Many upper class women acquired education, publicly visible if husbands were westernized • China • Many Western missionaries were women; Chinese women often became active in missions • Many elite Chinese women educated abroad; married westernized husbands (Soong Sisters) • Japan • Meiji changes effected women: some entered work force, some acquired an education • Japanese women still largely uneffected by changes in Japanese society • Latin American Women • Latin American elite became thoroughly westernized in its outlook • Women may have dressed, acted like their western sisters but far more restricted by tradition • Mexican Revolution saw increased roles, involvement of women in revolution, often as soldiers