Unit 5: Personality and Individuality

1. Unit 5: Personality and Individuality Ch 13: Psychological Testing Ch 14: Theories of Personality

2. Characteristics of psychological testing One of the ______ of testing is that we tend to forget that tests are merely tools for measuring + predicting ______ ___________. We start to think of test results as an __________ (ex. IQ tests). The fairness + usefulness of a test depends on 3 things: 1. ___________ 2. ________ 3. ________________ Ch 13 – Psychological Testing

3. Reliability The ability of a test to give the same _______ under similar ___________ – it’s ______________. There are 3 ways of determining a test’s reliability: 1. If a person _______________ or a similar test w/in a short time after the 1st testing, they should receive approximately the _____________. 2. The test should yield the same results when scored at different _______ by different _______. 3. If the test is randomly split in ½, you should receive roughly the ________ on each ½.

4. Validity The ability of a test to measure what it is ________________. ________ to determine than reliability. One of the main ways for measuring validity is to find out how well a test ___________________. Do the people who score high on a test later do well like the test says they should? One problem that may arise is that the test only predicts _________ of what it is supposed to be testing.

5. Standardization The tests are administered + scored in the ________ every time + establish the ______ _______ made by a large # of people. The test should _________ how a person will score at a given level, but that ______ ______ how that person does against others. A percentile system is a ranking of test scores that indicates the _______________ lower + higher than a given score. If 50% of people score a 70 or lower, then 70 is the 50th percentile. If 75% of people score a 85 or lower, then 85 is the ____th percentile. To make these comparisons, a test is first given to a large _________________ of the group to be tested (ex. High school freshmen, army privates, etc…) + the percentiles, also known as ______, are determined. Norms determine how someone compares to others, not ___________________ overall. End Section 1

6. Intelligence Believed by most to be the ability to acquire new ______ + new ________, + to adapt to new _______________. Not all psychologists _______ on this definition. Some believe it is what allows you to do well on _________________ + in school. The 2 Factor Theory of Intelligence proposes that 2 factors contribute to an individual’s intelligence – a person’s __________________ (ability to perform complex mental work like problem solving) + a person’s ______________ __________ (like verbal or math skills). Thurstone’s Theory of Intelligence proposes that intelligence is composed of ____________ _________________ (verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, + inductive reasoning). See chart p.349.

7. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes that intelligence is more than the ability to ____________. Howard Gardner believed there are 8 kinds of intelligence: 1. _______ ability 2. Logical-mathematical reasoning 3. Spatial ability (mental maps) 4. ________ 5. Bodily-kinesthetic 6. __________ (understanding others) 7. __________ (understanding oneself) 8. Naturalist Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence proposes a triarchic theory which states that intelligence can be divided into 3 ways of __________________. They are analytical thinking skills (problem solving), _________ thinking (dealing w/ new situations), + practical thinking skills to help adjust to + cope w/ one’s ________________.

8. Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, imagine, + understand emotions + to use that information _______________________________. It helps us gauge the situation + determine an _______________________. It includes the 4 major aspects of interpersonal + intrapersonal intelligences: 1. The ability to perceive + express emotions accurately + _____________. 2. The ability to use emotions while ___________. 3. The ability to understand emotions + use the knowledge ______________. 4. The ability to regulate one’s emotions to promote _____________. Major proponents of this view of intelligence have linked emotional intelligence to success in the ____________. Read p.372-3 “The EQ Factor”

9. Intelligence tests Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who was asked by authorities to design an intelligence test pick out “_____________” to be placed in separate classes. This led to the development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale which groups items by _______. A person’s IQ (intelligence quotient) is his/her standardized measure of intelligence based on a scale in which _____ is average. About 95% of people score b/w ___________. People who score _______ are usually classified as handicapped. Mildly handicapped, but educable (55-69) Moderately handicapped, but trainable (40-54) Severely handicapped (25-39) Profoundly handicapped (below 25) IQ scores are most useful when related to _______________ – they are very accurate at predicting how well people will do in school. Critics argue that IQ testing doesn’t ________________ intelligence though.

11. Controversy over IQ testing Is IQ based on _______________________? Researchers have found a high degree of heritability (the degree to which a characteristic is related to _________ _________________) in intelligence. Although debated, many believe heredity accounts for ____% of a person’s IQ. The richness of the home environment, the quality of food, + the # of _____ all affect a person’s IQ. How does _____________ affect IQ scores? A major criticism of IQ tests is that they are culturally biased (an aspect of a test in which the wording used in questions may be more familiar to people of one _____________ than to another group). End Section 2

12. Aptitude tests Tests designed to discover a person’s _____ + to predict how well he/she would be able to learn a __________. Often used to determine what ____________ a person might enjoy +/or find success in. Can also be used to measure aptitude in things like language, math, art, music, + other ______________________. The SAT + ACT are general aptitude tests designed to predict a person’s _____________.

13. Achievement tests Tests designed to measure how much a person has learned in a _____________ or area. Instructors + students can assess a student’s ____________. They are validated in terms of their __________ validity. Many confuse aptitude + achievement tests. The distinction is in whether the test is used to predict __________ (APTITUDE) or to assess what a person ____________ (ACHIEVEMENT).

14. Interest inventories Test that measures a person’s _________ + attitudes in a wide variety of activities to identify areas of likely __________. There are no _______________ answers. These tests are often used to determine what career students might find most _____________. The more a person’s interest patterns correspond to those of people in a particular occupation, the more likely that person is to _________________ in that profession. It’s important to note that ______ as well as interests should be taken into account when ____________________. End Section 3

15. Personality tests Tests that assess an individual’s ______________, identify problems + ___________________, + to predict how he/she might behave in the ________. 2 types – objective + projective.

16. Objective tests Tests w/ limited or forced-choices in which a person ____________________________. The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) consists of ______________ to which a person must respond true/false/cannot say. The statements were created + then given to groups w/ known __________(well-adjusted, depressed, etc…). People take the test + their answers are ___________to the people in the sample. Used to reveal habits, delusions, sexual attitudes, ______________________, etc… The Myers-Briggs Test focuses on how a person takes in information, _____________, + approaches day-to-day tasks. It looks at 4 different areas (____________________, practicality vs. intuitive, thinking vs. feeling, + judging vs. perceiving contrast). Can be used by businesses to decide who to hire or promote, by students to determine their _______________, etc…

17. Projective tests ________________ which people respond to freely, giving their interpretations of various test stimuli. B/c the tests have __________________, what the person says must say something about his/her needs, wishes, fears, + other aspects of personality. It’s designed to probe a person’s __________________. The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a set of 10 cards w/ ______________________ + used for interpreting responses. In addition to a person’s responses, the psychologist may consider where + how he/she holds the cards, _________________ before answering, etc… Criticized for lack of ___________ + validity. The TAT (The Thematic Apperception Test) is a set of 20 cards w/ vague but suggestive situations + individuals _______________ about the pictures. Responses are examined for underlining motivation, _________________________ + problems, etc... End Section 4

18. Personality The ___________, enduring, + unique ________________ of a person. What is the purpose of personality theories? Provide a way of _________ the many characteristics about you + others. Explain _________ among individuals. Explore how people conduct their lives. Determine how life can be _________. Formal personality theories try to make ideas about why people act in certain ways ____________ by stating them precisely + testing them scientifically. Ch 14 – Theories of Personality

19. Major schools of personality theory There are many ___________________. Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the importance of ____________________. Behaviorist theories emphasize the way rewards + punishments _____________. Social learning theories emphasize the impact of _____________________ on personality. Cognitive theorists emphasize how our _________, perceptions, + feelings shape our personalities. Humanistic theorists stress one’s potential for _________. Trait theorists emphasize the importance of understanding basic _____________ ________________ like friendliness + aggression. End Section 1

20. Psychoanalytic theories – Sigmund Freud Developed by Sigmund Freud + his followers. Freud suggested that the ________ of the tongue that people say (Freudian slips) + the things they _______ are not really mistakes, but were clues as to what was going on in their unconscious mind. He believed that ________ were clues as well. Freud was the 1st modern psychologist to suggest that every person has a large unconscious, or ______, part of his/her mind. He believed that many of our experiences aren’t forgotten but are stored in our unconscious + continue to __________________ + personality. He also suggested that b/w the conscious + unconscious is the preconscious – which stores thoughts + memories that can be recalled w/ relatively ________________.

22. Freud believed the energy in personality comes from 2 ________________ – life + death. The death instinct shows up as characteristics like destructiveness + ____________. The life instinct shows up as characteristics like erotic + _______ _________ urges. Freud thought the ___ instinct is more important.

23. Freud’s structural concepts of the personality are known as the id, ego, + superego. They explain how _______________________________ + regulated. The id is the part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts, + ________________. It __________________________ of desires regardless of the consequences. The ego is the part of the conscious personality that is in touch w/ reality + strives to meet the demands of the id + the superego in ________ ________________. The superego is the part of the personality that is the source of _________ + counteracts the socially undesirable impulses of the id. The id represents what a person ______ to do, the ego plans what he/she _____ do, + the superego advocates what he/she _______ do. If the id isn’t satisfied, a person becomes filled w/ _______ + longing, but if the superego isn’t satisfied he/she feels _______ + inferior.

24. Defense mechanisms Examples p.381-383 Certain specific means by which the ego ________________________ against unpleasant impulses or circumstances. People trick themselves into believing nothing is wrong + _____________. They can relieve _____ + give people time to work out problems, but if done too frequently, a person won’t be able to face + solve his/her problems _____________. Rationalization involves making up a logical or rational reason as opposed to the _________ for a behavior. Repression is pushing ____________________ + memories out of awareness w/o realizing it. Denial is _____________________ reality. Projection is believing that your own unacceptable urges are coming from ______________. Reaction formation is replacing an unacceptable feeling w/ the _________ one – putting on a front. Regression is going back to an earlier + _________ pattern of behavior. Displacement is taking out impulses on a ______ _____________ target. Sublimation is redirecting a forbidden desire into a __________________ desire.

25. Freud’s contribution to understanding humans He recognized that tremendous forces exist in human personality + are extremely ______ ______________. Made it easier to understand why humans have so much ________. It’s the savage individual coming to terms w/ _________________. The id is the ________ part + the superego is representative of ______. In a healthy person, the __ (the “I”) is strong enough to handle the struggle. He was the 1st psychologist to claim that infancy + childhood are critical times for forming a person’s ________________. Believed a person’s personality largely developed in the 1st ___yrs of life.

26. Psychoanalytic theories – Carl Jung For a while he was Freud’s closest associate, but when he questioned Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, they _______________. Disagreed w/ Freud on 2 major points: 1. He had a more _________ of humans - believed people try to develop their ___________ as well as handle their instinctive urges. 2. He divided Freud’s idea of the unconscious into 2 types. The _______ unconscious was similar to Freud’s unconscious + the collective unconscious which is the part of the mind that contains ________________, urges, + memories common to all people. These inherited ideas, based on the experiences of one’s __________ that shape our perception of the world are archetypes.

27. Psychoanalytic theories – Alfred Adler Another former associate of Freud. Believed that the driving force in people’s lives is a desire to overcome their feelings of _____________. Described a person who continually tries to ______________________ + avoid feelings of inadequacy as having an inferiority complex (a pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to ______________________). Children feel inferior b/c they’re so little + __________ on adults. Emphasized that the way parents ______ their children influences their personalities. Ideally, children should learn self-reliance/courage from their ______ + generosity/compassion from their ________. End Section 2

28. Behaviorist theories Behaviorism is the belief that the proper subject matter of psychology is objectively ___________________ + nothing else. Behaviorists believe that as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they acquire different ____________, + thus different _____________. They look to the environment to see what is _____________________.

29. Behaviorist theories – B. F. Skinner Saw _______ for a general concept of personality structure. Instead, he was concerned w/ what causes a person to act in a ______________. Less concerned w/ understanding behavior than w/ predicting + ____________ it. Tried to understand the contingencies of reinforcement (the occurrence of rewards or punishments following ____________________). So what is reinforcing a person’s behaviors? His approach suggests a hypothesis that can be proven ______________. We may be completely _________ of the rewards that are shaping our behavior. Our ________ were not Skinner’s concern – only how we behave. The point is to find out what is reinforcing our behavior + then stop it if our behavior is undesirable. To change __________,you must change the ____________________.

30. Social cognitive theories – Albert Bandura Social cognitivists believe that personality is acquired not only by direct reinforcement of behavior but also by _________________, or imitation. So much of a young child’s behavior + personality is acquired by exposure to specific everyday _________. Bandura believed that __________________ __________ by their choice of models. The most effective models are those which are most _____ to + most admired by the observer. He also believed that one important concept that governs our behavior is our sense of self-efficacy (our view of our ability to ________).

31. Another social cognitivist (Julian Rotter) stressed the importance of our locus of control (our beliefs about how much _______ we have over certain situations). People w/ an ________ locus of control believe that they do have control over situations. People w/ an ______ locus of control believe that their fate is determined by forces _____________ _________. “Most tests are fair if a student is prepared.” - Agree – ________ locus -Disagree – ________ locus People w/ an _________ locus of control are usually less anxious + more content w/ life. End Section 3

32. Humanistic theories Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emphasizes _________ ________ + achievement of maximum potential by each unique individual. _______ the more pessimistic views of psychoanalytical + behaviorist beliefs about personality. Stresses our ability to ______ + live by personal standards + perceptions. Founded on the belief that all humans strive for self-actualization (the realization of ____________________).

33. Abraham Maslow (remember Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs?) studied ___________ people to learn how they coped w/ problems + created exceptional lives. He found that they tended to share _______________: Perceive ________ accurately. ________ themselves, others, + their environment more readily. __________-centered instead of self-centered. Autonomous + ___________. Exceptionally spontaneous + ________. Value privacy + solitude. Appreciate ________ things. Resist conformity.

34. Humanistic theories – Carl Rogers Rogers developed the __________. He believed that people suffer from a conflict b/w what they value in themselves + what they believe _______ ________ value in them. Also believed that everyone is constantly struggling to become more ________ + perfect. Anything that furthers that end is good. Each individual has what Rogers called a self (one’s experience or image of oneself, ________ _______________ w/ others) which is acquired by observing how others react to us. We all try to develop positive regard (viewing oneself in a positive light due to positive ________ received from interaction w/ others). If this doesn’t happen, we develop conditions ofworth (the conditions a _________________ in order to regard him/herself positively). We may ____________________________ to meet these conditions of worth.

35. Cognitive theory Based on analysis of our own perceptions, thoughts, + _________. The idea that our thoughts about _______, others, + our world shape our behavior + ____________. Emphasis is on the individual + his/her plans – including ____, errors, mistakes, + _____ ____________. Has to do w/ the individual’s anticipations or _____________. End Section 4

36. Trait theories A trait can be described as a tendency to ________________ in a way that remains stable over time or as any relatively enduring way in which one _____________ from another. Trait theorists make 2 _______________ about the consistency of an individual’s behavior in different situations: 1. Every trait applies to __________. 2. These descriptions can be _______. They want to discover the ________________ of the consistency of human behavior. The 1st ? of trait theorists is, “What behaviors ______________?”.

37. Trait theories – Gordon Allport He defined common traits as those that _______________ + individual traits as those that apply more to a ____________. He described 3 types of individual traits: 1. A cardinal trait is a characteristic that is so pervasive that the person is almost _________ w/ that trait (ex. Scrooge). 2. A central trait - is a general characteristic found in some degree in _____________. It makes us __________ in most situations. 3. Secondary traits are characteristics seen only in ___________________ (such as likes/dislikes). They are the least important + have a less consistent ___________ on us.

38. Trait theories – Raymond Cattell He identified 46 surface traits (stable characteristics that can be observed in _________________). When looking at what surface traits had in common, he identified 16 source traits (stable characteristics that can be considered to be at the ___________ ______________). P. 400. Ex. Relaxed vs. tense, ___________ _______, reserved vs. outgoing, etc… He believed that by measuring these traits, psychologists could _______ people’s behavior in certain situations.

39. Trait theories – Hans Eysenck He concluded that there are 2 basic dimensions of personality: 1. _______________________ 2. _______________________ Stability refers to the degree of ______ people have over their feelings. Stable people are relaxed, easygoing, + well-adjusted. Extroverts are _________, outgoing, active people who direct their energies towards other people + things. Introverts are reserved, withdrawn people who are preoccupied w/ their _________________ + feelings. He later added a 3rd dimension – _________. People at one end are self-centered, hostile, + ___________. At the other end people are socially sensitive, caring, + ____________.

41. Trait theories – “The robust five” Various trait theories have shown that 5 traits ___________________ in different research. They are: 1. ______________ - talkativeness, energetic, etc… 2. ______________ - sympathetic, trusting, etc… 3. ______________ - organized, responsible, etc… 4. ______________________ - open-minded to new things 5. ___________________ - ability to experience things relatively easy w/o getting upset Trait theorists assume that traits are _____________________. End Section 5