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The History of Hungarian Passive Resistance 1849-67

The History of Hungarian Passive Resistance 1849-67. By Rory Kinane. Contents. Introduction Context Timeline Methods of Passive Resistance Ferenc Deak Historiography Conclusions. Introduction. Hungary between 1849-67 went through a period of passively resisting their Austrian rulers

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The History of Hungarian Passive Resistance 1849-67

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  1. The History of Hungarian Passive Resistance 1849-67 By Rory Kinane

  2. Contents • Introduction • Context • Timeline • Methods of Passive Resistance • Ferenc Deak • Historiography • Conclusions

  3. Introduction • Hungary between 1849-67 went through a period of passively resisting their Austrian rulers • Passive resistance led and inspired (to a debatable degree) by Ferenc Deak • This is seen by many as the forerunner to much of what Gandhi would later do in India • Perhaps the first example of passive resistance and also it was successful • Richard B. Gregg - the first major populariser of nonviolence describes Hungary as the earliest example • Gene Sharp - in The Politics of Nonviolent Action talks of how Ference Deak was well ahead of his time

  4. Context • Hungary is a large part of Austrian empire, Sugar describes it as practically half of the empire • Revolutions of 1848 impact the Austrian empire and Hungary in particular • The events of 1848 meant Hungary gained a Constitution • Emperor Ferdinand seen as weak in allowing Hungarians to gain constitution and give other concessions • Forced to abdicate bye nephew and subsequent Emperor Francis Joseph • New Emperor quickly repeals constitution • Violence erupts • Attempts by Kossuth and others at declaring Independence

  5. Austrian Oppression 1848 • Notoriously brutal General Haynauwas given a free hand by the regime • In the city of Arad, thirteen Hungarian military revolutionaries executed • Lajos Batthyány - the first Hungarian head of state executed • Military courts sentenced some 500 to death, executed 114, and jailed 1,763. Around 50,000 ex-infantrymen were shanghaied into special "retribution" units • A new gendarme force was formed and a pervasive network of informants created

  6. Timeline 1849-67 • 1849-59 resistance is largely directionless • Deak sets tone in 1850 by repeatedly refusing to join in governing with the Austrians • 1859 Emperor visits and Hungarians refuse to celebrate and burn down an arch the Emperor was meant to pass through • 1859 Emperor attempts to appease Hungarians by asking for representatives to go to Reichstag – only 3 out of 6 go • Emperor again concedes to Hungarian demands and allows a Diet in 1861

  7. Timeline – The 1861 Diet • The actions of the Diet re-establish County Councils and also attack Austrian control: - • New Diet soon closed at gunpoint by Austrian soldiers Decrees of 1861 • Sack all Austrian officials • Ban all taxes that support the Imperial Army • Ban all future taxes unless approved by Hungarian parliament • Send a critical letter to the Emperor

  8. Timeline – 1861 Onwards passive resistance begins • Boycott of Austrian goods • Refusal to pay taxes • Refusal to co-operate • Refusal to speak German • Refusal to take part in Imperial Parliament • Austria responds by billeting soldiers • Only increases polarisation and massively unpopular with soldiers

  9. Timeline -1863 • Conciliation attempted but Deak refuses • Austria and Prussia go to war with Denmark and seize Schleswig and Holstein • Bohemia also leaves Imperial parliament • Tension begins to build between Austria and Prussia over Danish spoils • Bismarck, realises Austria is weak and Prussian military advancements make war a good option

  10. Timeline - 1865 • Emperor again offers Deak a settlement short of constitutional revival, Deak refuses • Emperor visits Hungary to gain/gauge support • Asks Palffy (Governor) to get Hungary covered in Imperial flags • Hungarians respond by covering Pesth in Nationalist flags

  11. Timeline – 1865 Continued • Emperor realises support in Hungary is very weak • Sacks Palffy • Emperor attempts to gain French support against Prussia but Bismarck had already squared them in neutrality • Position of Austria increasingly weak • Signs treaty of Lauenberg with Austria giving them the rest of the Danish spoils for the very cheap price of £500,000

  12. Timeline – 1865 Continued • 20th September Manifesto - Emperor dissolves Imperial parliament and restores Hungarian and Bohemian parliaments • December – Emperor opens new Hungarian parliament wearing Hungarian dress, speaking Hungarian with motif of “1848!” behind him • Gives eloquent address but little consolation • Spends time in Pesth giving dinner parties to every Hungarian patriot he could find • Tells people he is more of a Hungarian than an Austrian

  13. Timeline – 1865 Continued • Diet respond by continuing to demand restoration of 1848 Constitution for Hungarian co-operation • Some back and forth with Emperor but ultimately he leaves Pesth baffled and to no fanfare • Diet begins to ignore Austria and act as 1848 laws were in existence • Austria impotent to stop this • Prussia now allied to Italy and Austria facing disaster

  14. Timeline – 1866 • Austro-Prussian War • Italy beaten, but Prussians devastate every Austrian army • Last ditch attempt by Emperor for Hungarian support • Even asks Deak if he restores Constitution would Hungary fight • He says “No” – it was not a matter to be bartered over • Results of war: Austria looses head of Germanic Confederation, some territory to Prussia, Italian provinces and has to pay a war debt

  15. Timeline – 1866 Continued • Emperor fires some old guard and turns to Baron Beust • Deak strains to prevent rebellion in Hungary • Austrians fear Bismarck backed Hungarian uprising and so Deak suddenly becomes a very attractive option • But Deak also sees if a violent insurrection destroyed the Austrian empire and left Hungary weak – Russia may well take over

  16. Timeline – 1867 Continued • 18th February 1867 Emperor recognises Hungarian Constitution • Under the Ausgleich Hungary controls it’s army, taxes and borders • Austria-Hungary becomes new name • Hungary pays only 1/3 of Imperial expenditure but gets equal vote in how it is spent • Emperor Francis Joseph proclaimed King of Hungary to sincere fanfare

  17. Methods of Passive Resistance • Patrick Murray argues the most important tactic employed was the “steadfast refusal of the Hungarians to send representatives to the Imperial parliament in Vienna, as a means of securing the re-establishment of a separate Hungarian parliament in Budapest.” • This tactic does two things: - • First it denies the Austrians legitimacy • Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, unlike open revolt or electing a National parliament, this tactic gives the Austrians nothing to aim a sword at • So it frustrates the Austrians as much as it undermines them

  18. Methods of Passive Resistance • Refusal to pay Taxes, Griffith describes vividly how Hungarians refused to pay taxes, confiscate property of those that wouldn’t pay or but said property • This meant people had to be brought in to do all those tasks • The Austrians soon learned it cost more than was gained to collect taxes

  19. Methods of Passive Resistance • Refusal of Hungarian leaders to participate • Boycott of Austrian goods • Nationalist Songs • Nationalist organisations • National Agricultural and Industrial councils direct economy • National Theatre attended as matter of patriotism • Hungarian spoken and taught in defiance of all attempts at Germanification

  20. Methods of Passive Resistance • Constant telling of every Austrian from taxmen, soldiers to the Emperor himself that their regime was illegal • Psychological effect on the oppressors? • Playing the long game – Schmerling: “Austria can wait and win” – Deak: “She can’t wait half so long as we can.” • The Times warns : “Passive resistance can be so organised as to become more troubling than armed rebellion”

  21. Ferenc Deak 1803-1876 • “The Wise Man of the Nation” • Griffith calls him – not a “politician, but a statesman” • Walked the streets of Pesth playing with children, giving alms to beggars and conversing with all sorts of people • Refused position of Prime Minister and many other titles • Emperor offers gifts, money, favour, position and asks what Deak wants • Deak responds “Sire when I am dead you can say Ferenc Deak was an honest man.” • Retires to modest rural estate • Dies in 1876 and has a massively attended funeral – but personally requests a simple grave • Today a national hero and 200th anniversary of his birth recently celebrated

  22. Historiography (1) • Miller notes that it was not passive resistance alone, but a combination of factors • “It may be questioned whether the passive resistance ... was responsible solely for Hungary's success, but it was doubtless a large factor.” • Csapody and Weber argue history is often constructed for fairly pragmatic reasons and Hungarian resistance triumph is an example of this. • Serves as a National legend • Has a “Great man” hero • Serves histories looking to trace back Ghandi and perhaps even attempts to steal his ideas to European parents (Euro-centrism?)

  23. Historiography (2) • Molnár looks at the passive resistance as a way of life and not necessarily driven primarily by Deak • Griffith’s work is primarily propaganda and unashamedly idolises Deak • Péter Dávidházi argues Deak was a brilliant figure but not in charge. The movement was largely directionless and without vision. Furthermore the social environment largely produced the resistance movement, not individual actors.

  24. Historiography (3) • Kontler argues that the dimensions of passive resistance have been greatly exaggerated by national legend, but still dominant political attitude in Hungary. • Uses Salman Rushdie to some up: "Sometimes legends make reality, and become more useful than the facts.” • Deak’s apparent uniting strength must balanced with the realisation people were unusually united by anti-Austrian and Nationalist sentiment • Griffith even admits this and Sugar also discusses it

  25. Conclusions • Griffith’s work is a useful narrative but obviously biased and in need of moderation • Miller is correct – the campaign was part of a larger picture that caused the success • Molnar and Dávidházi also make a good point that Deak was not in direct control of the movement • But he did lead by example • Kontler also rightly points out the obviously dubious simplicities associated with this period

  26. Conclusions - Continued • However this was still an incredible movement that showed passive resistance was possible and could achieve results • It arguably showed passive resistance could be superior to violence • Deak’s role is perhaps overstated, but should definitely not be understated. He was a truly great leader and is comparable to figures as revered as Gandhi. • Sharp was right, he was very ahead of his time

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