The

1. The Almoravid and Almohad Empires Religion, Law and Learning

2. Religion, Law and Learning “The Long Process of Islamization”: • For Bennison: ‘thread running through chapters on society and economy’ • For us: process underlying the social, economic and political development of Almoravid and Almohad empires

3. Religion, Law and Learning Role of Urban Centres: • From early conquests: towns centres of administration, trade, markets • Also learning: mosques built, scholars attracted • Medrasa[Islamic schools]: mid-11th C. in East, post-Almohad in West

4. Religion, Law and Learning Islamic Learning: • Also limited to Elite, those with Arabic • Even in East, few mosques built in rural areas; West even less so (mountains, desert) • Rural Islam more about practice (e.g. prayers) than ‘learning’ per se

5. Religion, Law and Learning Evidence: how do we know what we know? • shaped by urban, Arabic character of ‘learning’ • Texts we have from cities like Qayrawan (Maghreb), Cordoba (Andalusia) • Little sense of how majority of population experienced Islam and its development

6. Religion, Law and Learning ‘Berber Empires’: played crucial role in development of Islam itself – especially Malikism • Al-Andalusia: religious, intellectual frontier between Christendom and Islam (North Africa) • Ifriqiya: “portal for Western dissemination of Eastern Islamic learning”

7. Religion, Law and Learning Religious Learning (pre-Almoravid era): • Covers material not addressed by Hoyland: ties his study of ‘conquest’ era to 9thc. to Bennison’s 11th - 13th • Important: cannot separate religion from learning and law – ‘Islamization’ IS evolution law, education, economy, social values….

8. Religion, Law and Learning “Islamization” is not about individual ‘conversion’: • Is about what becoming ‘Muslim’ means for society • Post 8th c: is about Muslim societies evolving, changing, responding to various new ideas – and challenges

9. Religion, Law and Learning Post-Prophet era: Dynamic period of cultural and legal evolution that saw emergence of. . . • Key legal/juridical schools • Critical debates over religious authority • Challenges of ‘mysticism’ (sufism)

10. Religion, Law and Learning Islamic law in the making: • Schools of thought named after scholars who developed ideas, writing, that were accepted as base for understanding how the Qur’an should be translated into practice • Different ideas, scholars ‘accepted’ in different regions, times – depending on local situation

11. Religion, Law and Learning Examples: • Abu Hanifa (8th C): emphasized ‘rational opinion’, reasoning • Malik b. Anas (8th C): emphasized ‘practice’, custom in Medina (site of first Muslim community) • also hadith – sayings of Prophet as ‘approved’ by him (small collection): book al-Muwatta

12. Religion, Law and Learning Examples: • Jafar al-Sadiq (8th C): included Alid (Shia) imams and their ‘sayings’ • Al-Shafi’i (9th C.): student of Malik – brought differences between ‘schools’ together in ‘process’: - Qur’an; hadith; consensus of community; analogy (reasoning based on precedence)

13. Religion, Law and Learning Examples: • Ahmad ibn Hanbal(9th C- Baghdad): emphasized hadith – but larger collection than that ‘approved’ by Malik

14. Religion, Law and Learning Understanding Role of Hadith: central to divisions • Malikism: limited to ‘the approved’; even these secondary to ‘practice’ (sunna) • Shafi’ism: drew on larger body being collected, evrified by ‘traditionalists’ • served as basis for later Hanbalists

15. Religion, Law and Learning Major schools of thought: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi, Hanbali[all Sunni – for Shia, see Isma’ili] • Emerged gradually, across Islamic world between 8th and 10th centuries • Scholars moved between them, studied across ‘caliphate’ – like al-Shafi, sought to combine, reconcile, address local issues

16. Religion, Law and Learning Not to say that ‘conflicts’ did not emerge: • During same era: those who followed one ‘school’ over another could become defensive • Example: Followers of Malikism enraged by ‘treason’ of al-Shafi (embracing non-approved Hadith) said to have had him murdered

17. Religion, Law and Learning Also part of ‘process’ of Islamization in West: • Interaction with/absorption of – ideas of Judaism and Christianity (as developed in Europe – through ‘portal’ of al-Andalusia in particular) • Began to engage with same philosophical questions, draw on shared legal practices (deriving from shared commercial networks) [more on commercial aspects ‘Discussion Class’, Mar.17]

18. Religion, Law and Learning Result in West: domination of Malikism (Maghreb, al-Andalus) • Role of Jurist “Sahnun” who studied in North Africa (Qayarwan: Malikism, Hanafism); then in East • produced “ Mudawwana”: most widely used book of Islamic law in al-Andalusia, Maghreb

19. Religion, Law and Learning Malikism: Drew on two sources for legitimacy - Malik b. Anas – al Muwatta - Sahnun – al Mudawanna Bennison: ‘overall, Maliki ‘practioners’ were very resistant to other religio-legal approaches’

20. Religion, Law and Learning The caliph vs. the ulama: Who had the ultimate religious authority? • question answered differently in different parts of Islamic world: • in west “relationship evolved along its own trajectory with the assertion of the ruler’s authority coming to the fore in the 10th C, surging to a peak with Almohads” [Bennison]

21. Religion, Law and Learning Mystics and Sufis: • ‘pietistic asceticism’: combined many influences including pre-Islamic elements • neo-Platonism (via Arab translation of Greek) influenced more intellectual strands • Others purely charismatic

22. Religion, Law and Learning Challenges of sufism: • both ‘types’ of sufism worried legal scholars and political authorities: strong potential for popularity with uneducated population • North Africa exposed to all religious trends fromn East through travelers, traders, those making the hajj

23. Religion, Law and Learning Other Influences: Karijism arose in East [refer back to Lectures on Hoyland, Ch 6] head of Caliphate should be most capable rather than elite Quraysh Arab ancestry many in army in North Africa 8th c.

24. Religion, Law and Learning Kharijites: • North Africa Berber Rebellion 739 [earlier lectures] that had drawn in al-Andalusia led by Kharijites • developed two ‘schools’, both moderate • most well-known, long-term influence: Ibadis

25. Religion, Law and Learning Ibadi Kharijites: turned towards interior: spread Islam as far as northern desert edges kept in touch with scholars in Iraq but developed distinctly North African tradition centred in Mzab (oasis region, southern Algeria)

26. Religion, Law and Learning Ibadis in Mzab: Developed austere priest-like social/political organization based on local council (Bennison notes): 11th c.. group whose appearance – shaved heads, white robes – revealed close Christian connections

27. Religion, Law and Learning Other Influences: Alids Alids fleeing Abassids settled in Egypt: 756 led uprising, failed Idris b “Abd Allah led group to Morocco (plains near Meknes): founded city of Fez

28. Religion, Law and Learning Alids: coinage shows he claimed leadership (imam) on basis of descendance from the Prophet (via Ali) “person rather than text base” of religion appealed to many Berbers in West number of ‘imams’ emerged: took title of ‘mahdi’

29. Religion, Law and Learning ‘the Mahdi’: messianic title meaning “Recipient of God’s Guidance” political, religious leader of Prophet’s ancestry who would ‘renew Islam’ and institute ‘true Justice’

30. Religion, Law and Learning ‘The Mahdi’: concept became most well articulated among Shia but in pre-Almoravid era: belief in the coming of a mahdi to renew Islam was common and widespread in the West [hence the ease with which Ibn Tumart arose in early 12th century]

31. Religion, Law and Learning Other Influences: ‘pseudo-Islamic’ cults similar to what we saw previously in far East (Persian-Turkish provinces) ‘slow process’ of Islamization through medium of local, pre-Islamic cults blended ideas: e.g. prayer practices, foods

32. Religion, Law and Learning ‘Pseudo-Islamic’ cults: example: Bargharwata Berbers (Atlantic plain region Morocco) chose one of their own chiefs as ‘prophet’, created Berber version of Qur’an [met them in earlier lecture, also ‘Almoravid-Almohad’ video] natural ‘enemy’ for Almoravids

33. Religion, Law and Learning Isma’ili Shiism 9th century: several schools thought vied for prominence – Kkarijitism, Hanafism as prominent in places like Qayrawan as Malikism 10th century: ‘Alid influence “washed over Maghreb”inform of Isma’ili Shiism (da’wa or ‘mission)

34. Religion, Law and Learning Isma’ili ‘Mahdi’: Abu Abdallah al-Shi’i: proselytized among Kutama Berbers (Ifriqiya) took refuge Sijilmassa to avoid rivals reinforced existing ‘Mahdi tendencies’; facilitated influence Shia Alids across Maghreb, into al-Andalusia, into Saharan fringes

35. Religion, Law and Learning Beliefs: line of imams descended directly from Ali, Fatima via Isma’il b. Jafar al-Sudiq “living infallible guides” Believed imams moved between periods of ‘other worldly concealment’ and active engagement with real world characterized by probity (integrity, honour) and justice: proclamation ‘Abu Abdallah as beginning of one such era

36. Religion, Law and Learning Influences: Neo-Platonism, Mu’tailism ‘debate’: Mu’tazili argued Qur’an ‘created’; Traditionalists argued ‘eternal, co-existed with God attractive to Kutuma Berbers: idea of divinely inspired imam + era of ‘revolutionary justice’ that could empower them vis-à-vis enemies [Bennison] ulama of Qayrawan attracted to sophisticated theology/philosophy

37. Religion, Law and Learning ‘Abu Abdallah: ‘Caliph-Imam’ returned to Ifriqiya 909: Fatimids declared ‘Shi’ism’ as state religion changed dynamics: other ‘schools’ became more defensive, exclusionary especially important moment for Malikis: emergence new scholars, new books – direct attempt to counteract influence of Shi’ism

38. Religion, Law and Learning Re-engagement with Shafi’ism, reasoning, returned to ‘eternalist’ view of Qur’an gave new strength to Malikism eventually able to defeat political power of Fatimid Isma’ilis (970s)

39. Religion, Law and Learning Developments under Almoravids and Almohads: “Under their ‘missions’… the contours of Maghribi Islam with its combination of Maliki Sunnism and the cult of Holy Men had emerged” what does Bennison mean by this

40. Religion, Law and Learning Religious life in Maghreb,al-Andalus mid-11 Century (above discussion): moment when Yahya b. Ibrahim made the hajj and returned to home to desert Sanhaja with ‘preacher’ Ibn Yasin. Movement that emerged reflected Malikism of that time, characterized by: puritanicalism, notions of jihad including concept of ribat

41. Religion, Law and Learning Ibn Yasin’s Malikism: Bennison speaks of Ibn Yasin as ‘a charismatic holy man’ we now see that there were many others like him – mystics, mahdis had very strict interpretation of Maliki fiqh (jurisprudence) – jurist/s called faqih/fuqaha

42. Religion, Law and Learning Ribat: had come to mean scholarly, ascetic but often also militant community Dedicated to spreading the faith and/or defending it Men of the ribat “al-murabitun” or Almoravids: much discussion of how much they brought to understanding of both jihand and ribat

43. Religion, Law and Learning influences can be traced from Cordoba to Qayrawan Jurist who then became judge in Almoravid’s southern Saharan capital of Azuggi driven by jihand section Maliki fiqh: warfare last resort after requests of ‘enemy’ to convert or submit and pay tax

44. Religion, Law and Learning Modifications in al-Andalus: fiqh modified in more urban, sophisticated al-andalus: elites considered themselves more educated Almoravid jihad became one of ‘moral renewal and reform Almoravids and al-Andalusian jurists allied against ‘immoral’ Ta’ifa princes

45. Religion, Law and Learning “New concept of jihad”: emphasizing renewal and reform and ending of illegal taxes became means of unifying before launching military jihad against Christians Produced new scholars who then spread Almoravid law from al-Andalus through Maghreb creating single religious system Seville - Fez

46. Religion, Law and Learning [Bennison] Notes: positive aspects of Almoravid jihad went ‘hand-in-hand’ with certain rigidity Had potential to become oppressive, stiffling alternative approaches Especially of proponents of such approaches also constituted potential political challenge (e.g. Almohads [see below]

47. Religion, Law and Learning One example: Sufism, Mysticism important example was Abu Hamid Mohammed al-Ghazali (late 11th/early 12th C.) Shafi’I scholar from East Consistent with Sunni Islam in general but very controversial for several reasons

48. Religion, Law and Learning Al-Ghazali: most important of these: saw class of ulama (religious scholars) as “worldly, power hungry, self-seeking” Why? Because they did not allow for sufism Al-ghazali argued for sufi component to Shafi’ism/Malikism

49. Religion, Law and Learning Al-Ghazali in al-Andalusia: his books introduced into al-Andalusia near end of 11th c. immediately opposed by Almoravid jurists Books purged, burned on several occasions both in al-Andalusia and later Maghreb (where influence also spread)

50. Religion, Law and Learning How to understand? concerns about, hostility towards spread of sufism and influence of al-Ghazali must be understood in terms of extent to which Alid influences – emphasis on mahdism – were penetrating the West (Magreb-al-Andalusia) considerable ‘overlap’ between practise of sufism and activities of mahdis